CALIFORNIA 
AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE 

CIRCULAR  8 

February,  1927 


DISEASES  AND  PARASITES  OF 
POULTRY  IN  CALIFORNIA 

J.  R.  BEACH  AND  S.  B.  FREEBORN 


PUBLISHED  BY 

THE  COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


Cooperative  Extension  work  in  Agriculture  and  Home  Economics,  College  of  Agriculture, 
University  of  California,  and  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  cooperating.  Dis- 
tributed in  furtherance  of  the  Acts  of  Congress  of  May  8  and  June  30,  1914.  B.  H.  Crocheron, 
Director,  California  Agricultural  Extension  Service. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PRINTING  OFFICE 

BERKELEY,  CALIFORNIA 

1927 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Introduction 3 

General  preventive  measures 3 

Chicken-pox  and  canker  or  avian  diphtheria 8 

Infectious  bronchitis 15 

Colds  and  roup 18 

Nutritional  disease  resembling  roup 20 

Ruptured  yolk 23 

Fowl  cholera 25 

Fowl  typhoid 26 

Tuberculosis 27 

Coccidiosis 29 

Bacillary  white  diarrhea  of  chicks 35 

Leg  weakness  of  chicks 39 

Blackhead  in  turkeys 40 

Common  diseases  of  birds 45 

Lice 46 

Mites 48 

Ticks 52 

Fleas 53 

Flies 54 

Tapeworms 55 

Roundworms 57 

Cecum  worms 60 

Gizzard  worms 60 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2011  with  funding  from 

University  of  California,  Davis  Libraries 


http://www.archive.org/details/diseasesparasite08beac 


DISEASES  AND  PARASITES  OF  POULTRY  IN 
CALIFORNIA1 

J.  E.  BEACH2  and  S.  B.  FREEBOKN3 


INTRODUCTION 

There  are  a  number  of  diseases  and  parasites  which  may  attack 
poultry  and  cause  severe  loss.  The  modern  practice  of  raising  large 
numbers  of  fowls  continuously  on  relatively  small  areas  has  increased 
the  likelihood  of  their  occurrence.  It  is  obvious,  therefore,  that  some 
knowledge  of  the  means  of  recognizing,  preventing,  and  controlling 
the  more  common  diseases  and  parasites  is  of  great  importance  to  all 
poultry  raisers. 

GENERAL  PREVENTIVE  MEASURES 

The  most  effective  means  of  combating  diseases  and  parasites  of 
all  species  of  animals  is  to  prevent  their  occurrence.  This  principle  is 
especially  applicable  to  poultry  because  fowls  are  commonly  kept  in 
such  large  flocks  that  disease  may  spread  very  rapidly  and  cause  con- 
siderable loss  before  it  is  recognized.  Furthermore,  the  value  of  a 
single  fowl  is  so  small  that  it  is  impractical  to  administer  individual 
treatment  to  many  sick  ones. 

Quarantine. — Disease  is  very  often  introduced  by  new  stock.  This 
is  more  apt  to  occur  with  grown  birds  than  with  chicks.  It  is  safest, 
therefore,  for  a  beginner  to  buy  hatching  eggs  or  day-old  chicks. 
Adult  birds  which  are  added  to  existing  flocks  should  be  kept  separate 
for  at  least  two  weeks  before  they  are  put  with  the  others.  Even  with 
this  precaution  the  presence  of  some  infectious  diseases,  such  as  tuber- 
culosis, may  be  overlooked. 

Feeding. — Feeding  methods  are  responsible  for  the  sickness  and 
death  of  birds  in  many  flocks.  Frequently  losses  from  this  cause  are 
so  numerous  as  to  resemble  the  effect  of  an  infectious  disease.  It  is 
quite  apparent,  therefore,  that  proper  feeding  of  fowls  is  an  important 
factor  in  keeping  fowls  healthy. 


i  This  publication  is  a  revision  of  Experiment  Station  Circular  251. 

2  Assistant   Professor   of   Veterinary   Science,   Associate   Veterinarian   in   the 
Experiment  Station. 

3  Associate  Professor  of  Entomology,  Associate  Entomologist  in  the  Experi- 
ment Station. 


CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE 


[CIRC.  8 


Yards. — The  soil  of  yards  in  which  diseased  fowls  or  those  infested 
with  intestinal  parasites  are  kept  soon  becomes  contaminated  with 
disease  germs  or  parasite  eggs.  By  this  means  disease  and  parasites 
may  be  spread  to  other  fowls  placed  in  the  same  yards.  It  is  not 
practicable  to  treat  soil  with  disinfectants  or  other  chemicals.  Para- 
site eggs  may  remain  alive  for  years,  but  most  disease  germs  which 


Fig.  1. — Chicken-pox;  cockerel.     Natural  infection. 


affect  fowls  will  die  in  a  few  months  if  the  yards  are  not  used.  The 
danger  of  infection  from  this  source  will  be  greatly  reduced  if  fowls 
are  kept  but  a  few  months  at  a  time  in  the  same  yards.  The  "double- 
yard  system"  which  provides  two  yards  for  each  house  should  be 
adopted.     This  will  permit  fowls  to  be  kept  in  one  yard  while  the 


1927] 


DISEASES   AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA 


other  is  being  plowed  and.  cropped.  It  is  also  desirable  that  the  soil 
be  of  a  light  sandy  type  and  well  drained,  rather  than  of  a  heavy 
type  or  poorly  drained.  Water  holes  in  the  yards  or  moist  areas 
around  water  troughs  especially  are  to  be  avoided. 

Houses. — The  type  of  poultry  house  may  have  considerable  bearing 
on  the  occurrence  of  disease.  Sunlight  is  one  of  the  most  effective 
germ  destroyers.  Houses  should  be  so  constructed  and  located  that 
the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  will  reach  all  parts  some  time  during  each 
day.     Other  essential  points  are  to  provide  good  ventilation  without 


Fig.  2. — Chicken-pox;  baby  chick.     Natural  infection. 


draftiness,  to  make  provision  for  keeping  out  rain  during  stormy 
weather,  and  to  provide  drainage  away  from  the  house  so  that  the 
floors  will  not  become  damp.  The  floors  should  be  made  of  concrete 
or  matched  flooring,  preferably  the  former.  It  is  very  difficult,  if 
not  impossible,  to  efficiently  clean  and  disinfect  a  dirt  floor.  To 
facilitate  cleaning,  the  house  should  be  so  arranged  that  all  parts  are 
easily  accessible,  and  nest  boxes,  feed  troughs,  etc.,  should  be  remov- 
able. 

•  Isolation  of  Sick  Fowls. — The  symptoms  caused  by  some  different 
diseases  are  so  similar  that  it  is  not  always  possible,  by  symptoms 
alone,  to  differentiate  between  an  infectious  and  a  non-infectious  one. 
Therefore,  any  sick  fowls  should  be  regarded  with  suspicion  and  be 
removed  from  the  flock  as  soon  as  discovered.  Strict  adherence  to  this 
practice  will  assist  in  preventing  serious  outbreaks  of  infectious  dis- 


CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE 


[ClRC.  8 


eases.  A  sick  fowl  either  should  be  isolated  in  comfortable  quarters 
and  given  proper  care  and  treatment,  or  destroyed.  It  should  not  be 
simply  taken  out  of  the  flock  and  allowed  to  roam  around  the  farm 
at  will.  A  fowl  that  is  very  sick  or  of  questionable  value  as  a  pro- 
ducer should  be  destroyed  rather  than  given  treatment. 


Fig.  3. — Canker;  eye,  from  natural  infection  with  chicken-pox  virus. 

Examination  of  Dead  Fowls.— The  presence  of  most  infectious 
diseases  and  internal  parasites  can  be  best  determined  by  autopsy  of 
a  dead  fowl.  It  is  a  good  practice  to  make  an  examination  of  all  that 
die  or  are  killed  on  account  of  sickness.  By  such  examination  the 
presence  of  disease  or  of  parasites  many  times  can  be  detected  before 
they  have  made  serious  progress  in  the  flock.  All  dead  fowls  should 
be  disposed  of  by  burning  or  deep  burial  in  a  place  to  which  the  fowls 
do  not  have  access. 


1927] 


DISEASES   AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA 


Cleaning. — Sanitation  is  essential  for  the  maintenance  of  health  in 
any  flock.  Under  this  heading  is  included  cleanliness  and  the  appli- 
cation of  disinfectants  and  parasiticides.  Cleanliness  is  perhaps  the 
most  important  of  the  three.  By  thorough  cleaning,  many  of  the 
disease  germs  and  parasite  eggs  will  be  removed.  Thorough  cleaning 
involves  scrubbing  with  water  after  first  sweeping  and  scraping. 
Cleaning  is  facilitated  by  the  use  of  a  hot  lye  solution  (1  pound  of  lye 
in  40  gallons  of  water).    Droppings  of  fowls  are  especially  dangerous 


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Fig.  4. — Chicken-pox  and  canker  of  the  eye,  from  natural  infection  with 
chicken-pox  virus. 


as  a  spreader  of  disease  and,  therefore,  either  the  dropping  boards 
should  be  cleaned  daily  or  the  roosts  constructed  so  that  the  fowls 
do  not  have  access  to  the  droppings  during  the  day.  Litter  should 
be  removed  and  floors  cleaned  frequently.  Drinking  appliances  should 
be  emptied  and  cleaned  daily.  If  moist  mash  is  fed  the  troughs  should 
be  cleaned  daily. 

Disinfection. — Disinfectant  should  be  applied  only  after  a  thorough 
cleaning.  If  applied  to  a  dirty  house,  it  will  not  penetrate  the  accumu- 
lations of  filth  and  little  benefit  will  be  derived.     Disinfectants  are 


8  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClEC.  8 

most  effective  when  applied  in  liberal  amounts  and  sprayed  with  con- 
siderable force  to  all  parts  of  the  house  from  all  directions  so  that  the 
bottom  of  cracks  will  be  reached.  Most  disinfectants  cannot  be  relied 
upon  to  destroy  parasites  such  as  mites  and  ticks.  For  this  purpose 
oily  preparations  are  more  effective.  A  disinfectant  of  known  quality 
should  be  selected.  One  that  is  dependable  and  that  can  be  obtained 
in  any  locality  is  Compound  Solution  of  Cresol,  containing  50  per  cent 
cresylic  acid.  There  are  many  such  preparations  marketed  under 
various  trade  names.  This  disinfectant  is  used  in  a  3  to  5  per  cent 
solution  (1  pint  in  3  to  5  gallons  of  water).  The  coal  tar  ''sheep 
dips"  are  cheaper  and  are  fairly  effective.  The  "phenol  coefficient" 
which  is  usually  given  on  the  container  is  an  index  of  the  efficiency 
of  such  products.  The  chlorine  disinfectants  are  very  efficient  germi- 
cides but  are  too  unstable  to  be  suitable  for  poultry  house  disinfection. 
Preparations  sold  as  crude  carbolic  acid  are  variable  in  their  germi- 
cidal properties  and,  therefore,  are  not  reliable  disinfectants. 


CHICKEN-POX   AND    CANKER    OR    AVIAN    DIPHTHERIA 

Description. — Chicken-pox  is  manifested  by  small  wart-like  growths 
on  the  comb,  wattles,  or  skin  of  the  head  (figs.  1,  2,  5,  and  6),  and  by 
the  formation  of  masses  of  cheesy  material  or  canker  in  the  eyes  and 
the  mouth  (figs.  3,  4,  and  7).  Although  these  last  named  lesions  are 
entirely  different  in  character  from  the  lesions  on  the  skin  they  are 
usually  due  to  the  same  cause,  namely,  the  virus  of  chicken-pox.4  This 
disease  cannot  occur  unless  the  chicken-pox  virus  is  present,  although 
unsanitary  conditions  and  poor  methods  of  care  and  housing  make 
it  more  likely  to  occur.  Outbreaks  are  most  prevalent  during  the  fall 
and  winter  but  may  occur  at  any  time  of  the  year. 

Outbreaks  of  chicken-pox  vary  greatly  in  severity.  In  some  flocks 
but  a  few  birds  may  be  affected  and  practically  no  loss  result,  while 
in  other  flocks  the  lesions  may  be  very  severe ;  it  may  spread  through 
almost  the  entire  flock  and  cause  a  very  great  loss,  both  from  decreased 
egg  production  and  from  the  death  of  the  infected  fowls.  The  loss 
will  be  greater  when  a  large  percentage  of  the  infected  fowls  have 
canker  than  when  the  lesions  are  largely  on  the  skin. 


4  Lesions  in  the  mouth  and  eyes  identical  in  appearance  to  canker  may  be. 
caused  by  injury  to  the  mucous  membrane.  Therefore,  individual  cases  of  canker 
may  be  due  to  a  particle  of  litter,  barley  awn,  weed  seed,  or  similar  material  be- 
coming lodged  in  the  corner  of  the  eye,  the  cleft  in  the  roof  of  the  mouth  or  in  the 
larynx. 


1927 ]  DISEASES   AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA  9 

Control. — Outbreaks  of  chicken-pox  and  canker  can  be  controlled 
by  vaccination,  in  combination  with  sanitary  measures.  Vaccination 
is  not  advised  unless  the  sanitary  measures  can  be  carefully  carried 
out.  The  use  of  the  chicken-pox  vaccine  has  been  very  extensive  in 
this  state  for  several  years  past  and  the  results  obtained  from  vacci- 
nation have  been  quite  satisfactory.  Vaccine  should  be  used  on  all 
birds  in  the  flock  as  soon  as  the  presence  of  chicken-pox  in  the  flock 
is  noticed.5  Vaccination  of  fowls  before  the  appearance  of  the  disease 
among  them  is  not  recommended.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the 
length  of  time  after  vaccination  that  fowls  are  protected  against  the 
disease  is  variable  and  after  healthy  flocks  are  vaccinated  there  is 
therefore  no  assurance  that  they  will  be  protected  longer  than  three 
or  four  months.  If  a  flock  is  divided  into  a  number  of  small  pens 
and  are  under  close  observation,  it  may  not  be  necessary  to  vaccinate 
the  entire  flock  upon  the  appearance  of  the  disease  but  only  the  fowls 
in  the  pens  that  are  affected.  In  such  cases  the  vaccine  would  be  used 
in  other  pens  as  soon  as  the  disease  appears  there. 

If  the  vaccine  is  properly  administered  it  does  not  have  any 
harmful  effect  on  the  general  condition  of  the  birds.  The  egg  yield, 
however,  may  be  decreased  for  a  short  time  after  vaccination,  but  as 
a  rule  this  decrease  will  be  no  greater  than  would  be  expected  if  the 
fowls  were  handled  for  any  other  reason. 

Directions  for  Vaccination. — The  materials  required  for  vaccina- 
tion are :  the  vaccine ;  a  syringe ;  a  small  wide-mouth,  covered  vessel, 
such  as  a  quarter-pint  milk  bottle  provided  with  a  stopper,  or  a  jelly 
glass  with  a  tight  fitting  cover,  which  is  used  as  a  vaccine  container 
from  which  to  fill  the  syringe ;  a  pan  of  disinfectant ;  and  a  piece  of 
absorbent  cotton  for  cleansing  the  skin  at  the  point  of  injection.  The 
bottle  of  vaccine  should  always  be  thoroughly  shaken  before  any 
vaccine  is  poured  out  and  the  wide-mouth  container  should  always  be 
thoroughly  shaken  before  filling  the  syringe. 

Chicken-pox  vaccine  is  administered  by  injecting  it  beneath  the 
skin  with  a  hypodermic  syringe  (fig.  8).  The  dose  is  one  cubic  centi- 
meter for  each  fowl.    One  dose  is  usually  sufficient  to  check  the  spread 


s  Chicken-pox  vaccine  can  be  obtained  from  the  Division  of  Veterinary  Science, 
University  of  California,  at  the  actual  cost  of  production,  provided  the  applicant 
furnishes  satisfactory  evidence  that  chicken-pox  exists  among  his  fowls.  The 
present  cost  of  vaccine  is  1%  cents  per  dose.  Hypodermic  syringes  with  which  to 
administer  the  vaccine  can  also  be  procured  from  the  University  at  a  cost  of  $4.00 
each.  All  applicants  should  specify  in  writing  the  amount  of  vaccine  desired  or 
the  number  of  fowls  to  be  treated.  Vaccine  will  be  shipped  only  when  cash 
accompanies  the  order,  or  C.  O.  D.  When  possible,  orders  will  be  shipped  the  same 
day  they  are  received. 


10 


CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClRC.  8 


Figs.  5  and  6. — Chicken-pox;  turkey.     Natural  infection. 


1927] 


DISEASES   AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA 


11 


of  the  disease  in  slightly  infected  flocks.  A  second  treatment  given  five 
to  seven  days  later  is  recommended  for  all  birds  in  badly  infected  flocks. 
A  flock  may  be  re-vaccinated  whenever  the  disease  continues  to  spread 
a  month  after  vaccination.  The  most  convenient  place  for  administer- 
ing is  beneath  the  skin  of  the  breast  under  the  right  thigh.  The  bird 
may  be  held  by  the  person  administering  the  vaccine  or  by  an  assist- 
ant.   If  the  person  administering  the  vaccine  holds  the  bird,  the  fowl 


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Fig.  7. — Canker  of  the  mouth,  turkey;  from  natural  infection  with 
chicken-pox  virus. 

should  be  laid  on  the  left  side  with  the  left  wing  held  back  and  the 
right  wing,  legs  and  feathers  held  back  with  the  last  three  fingers  of 
the  left  hand.  The  exposed  skin  should  then  be  cleansed  with  a  piece 
of  cotton  saturated  with  a  good  disinfectant,  such  as  a  2  per  cent 
solution  of  Compound  Solution  of  Cresol  (1%  tablespoonsful  to  a 
quart  of  boiled  water),  and  picked  up  with  the  thumb  and  forefinger 
of  the  left  hand.  Then  with  the  right  hand,  the  syringe  needle  should 
be  inserted  just  beneath  the  skin  and  1  cubic  centimeter  of  vaccine 


12  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClRC.  8 

injected.  If  an  assistant  holds  the  bird,  both  the  wings  should  be  held 
with  the  left  hand,  both  legs  with  the  right  hand,  and  the  bird  placed 
on  a  table  on  its  left  side  with  the  legs  toward  the  operator.  The  skin 
should  then  be  cleansed  as  directed  above  and  picked  up  with  the 
thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  left  hand  and  the  hypodermic  needle 
inserted  just  beneath  the  skin,  being  directed  toward  the  head  of  the 
bird.  Fowls  can  be  vaccinated  at  the  rate  of  100  to  400  per  hour 
according  to  the  skill  of  the  operator  and  the  facilities  for  catching 
the  birds.  A  syringe  of  6  to  10  cubic  centimeters  capacity  is  well 
suited  for  this  work.  The  needle  should  be  16  to  18  gauge  and  from 
2  to  2%  inches  over-all  in  length. 

Sanitary  precautions. — 

1.  Although  the  vaccine  is  preserved,  the  amount  of  preservative  is 
not  sufficient  to  keep  it  from  spoiling  if  it  is  exposed  to  warm  tempera- 
ture for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  Furthermore,  vaccine  loses 
its  efficiency  with  age  and,  therefore,  it  should  be  used  within  three 
days  and  never  later  than  seven  days  after  it  has  been  prepared.  If 
old  or  decomposed  vaccine  is  used,  unsatisfactory  or  bad  results  will 
follow. 

2.  The  vaccine  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  place  on  ice  if  possible, 
until  used,  and  only  one  bottle  opened  at  a  time. 

3.  A  small,  wide-mouthed,  covered  vessel,  such  as  a  %-pint  cream 
bottle  or  a  jelly  glass,  should  be  provided  as  a  vaccine  container  from 
which  to  fill  the  syringe.  This  should  be  sterilized  by  boiling  before 
it  is  used  and  afterwards  should  be  kept  covered  at  all  times  except 
when  the  syringe  is  being  filled.  It  should  be  well  shaken  each  time 
the  syringe  is  filled. 

4.  The  syringe  should  be  sterilized  by  boiling,  or  by  soaking  for 
at  least  five  minutes  in  a  2-3  per  cent  solution  of  a  good  disinfectant 
and  rinsing  with  boiling  water. 

5.  The  immunizing  effect  of  the  vaccine  does  not  take  place  im- 
mediately ;  therefore,  fowls  already  infected  at  the  time  of  vaccination 
or  that  become  infected  soon  after  will  develop  chicken-pox  lesions. 
Carefully  examine  each  fowl  at  the  time  of  vaccination  and  remove 
from  the  flock  all  that  are  diseased.  Most  of  them  will  recover  if  given 
proper  treatment. 

6.  A  week  later  examine  each  fowl  again  and  remove  from  the 
flock  all  that  have  become  diseased  since  vaccination. 

7.  Do  not  return  a  diseased  fowl  to  the  healthy  flock  until  the 
lesions  are  entirely  healed. 


1927 ]  DISEASES  AND  PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA  13 


Fig.  8. — Method  of  holding  a  fowl  and  injecting  chicken-pox  vaccine. 


Fig.  9. — Method  of  holding  a  fowl  and  removing  canker  from  the  mouth. 


14 


CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE 


[CiRC.  8 


8.  Satisfactory  results  from  vaccination  cannot  be  expected  if  the 
diseased  fowls  are  not  separated  from  the  healthy. 

9-  The  hypodermic  needle  should  be  inserted  between  the  skin 
and  the  breast  muscle,  but  not  into  the  breast  muscle. 

Treatment  of  Sick  Fowls. — All  diseased  birds  should  be  removed 
from  the  flock  and  kept  in  comfortable  quarters  where  they  can  be 
given  treatment  at  two-  or  four-clay  intervals.  The  scabs  which  form 
on  the  growths  on  the  comb,  wattles,  or  skin  should  be  removed  with 


Fig.  10. — Method  of  holding  a  fowl  and  removing  canker  from  the  eyes. 


a  dull  knife  or  a  pair  of  forceps,  and  tincture  of  iodine  applied  to  the 
exposed  surface.  Collections  of  cheesy  material  in  the  mouth  should 
be  removed  with  forceps  (fig.  9)  and  tincture  of  iodine  applied.  Col- 
lections of  cheesy  material  within  the  eyelids  should  be  removed  by 
pressing  around  the  eye  with  the  thumb  and  finger  tips  (fig.  10)  and 
tincture  of  iodine  applied.  If  the  cheesy  material  adheres  to  the  eye- 
ball, it  will  be  necessary  to  use  forceps  to  remove  it.  In  such  cases  the 
eyeball  is  usually  destroyed  before  the  recovery  is  complete.  Tincture 
of  iodine  can  be  applied  most  conveniently  and  effectively  with  a 
medicine  dropper.     It  will  not  in  any  way  injure  the  eyesight  or  be 


1927J  DISEASES   AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA  15 

otherwise  injurious  to  the  birds.  The  administration  of  vaccine  in 
addition  to  local  treatment  with  iodine  will  hasten  recovery  and  de- 
crease the  loss  from  death. 


INFECTIOUS    BRONCHITIS 

Description. — This  disease  has  been  variously  designated  as  in- 
fectious bronchitis,  infectious  tracheitis,  tracheo-laryngitis,  chicken 
"flu,"  and  Canadian  "flu."  The  length  of  time  poultry  of  this 
country  have  suffered  from  it  is  not  definitely  known.  Operators  and 
employees  of  feeding  stations  claim  that  it  has  been  present  for  many 
years,  but  losses  caused  by  it  have  not  been  serious  before  the  fall  of 
1924.  In  some  poultry  periodicals,  the  statement  is  made  that  it  was 
introduced  into  this  country  by  show  birds  from  Canada  in  1921. 
The  first  authentic  report  of  its  occurrence  in  the  United  States,  how- 
ever, appears  to  be  that  of  May  and  Tittsler6  regarding  an  outbreak 
of  tracheo-laryngitis  in  a  Rhode  Island  flock  in  November,  1923.  The 
first  known  occurrence  of  the  disease  in  California  was  in  November, 
1924,  in  a  flock  of  pullets.  Since  then  numerous  other  outbreaks  have 
occurred  in  poultry  flocks  throughout  the  state.  Quite  heavy  losses 
were  also  sustained  among  fowls  in  fattening  stations.  These  were 
chiefly  among  live  fowls  shipped  from  the  Middle  West  (Nebraska), 
but  also  to  some  extent  in  fowls  obtained  from  California  flocks. 

Losses  have  been  heavier  among  young  birds  than  among  old  ones, 
although  fowls  of  all  ages  have  been  affected.  It  has  been  noted, 
however,  that  the  mortality  is  less  and  continues  over  a  shorter  period 
in  flocks  of  hens  than  in  flocks  of  pullets. 

The  predominant  symptom  of  the  disease  is  ' '  gasping  for  breath. ' ' 
The  affected  fowl  assumes  a  sitting  position,  with  the  neck  drawn  in, 
the  beak  pointed  downward  and  the  eyes  closed  (fig.  11).  At  each 
inhalation,  the  head  is  thrown  forward  and  upward,  with  the  beak 
opened  and  the  intake  of  air  is  accompanied  by  a  loud  wheezing  sound 
(fig.  12).  Spasmodic  exhalation  or  coughing  is  frequent  and  often 
results  in  the  expulsion  from  the  trachea  of  a  mass  of  clotted  blood. 
Examination  may  reveal  the  larynx  to  be  nearly  filled  with  a  caseous 
mass,  while  in  other  cases,  in  the  live  bird,  the  cause  of  the  respiratory 
difficulty  is  not  visible.  Collections  of  mucous  or  caseous  exudate  are 
frequently  found  within  the  eyelids.  This  causes  the  eyelids  to  be- 
come glued  together  and,  in  case  both  eyes  are  affected,  makes  it 


6  May,  H.  G.,  and  E.  P.  Tittsler.     Tracheo-laryngitis  in  poultry.     Jour.  Amer. 
Vet.  Med.  Assn.,  n.s.,  20:  229-231.     1925. 


16  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClRC.  8 

m 

impossible  for  the  fowl  to  see.  There  is  usually  a  discharge  from 
the  nostrils.  In  many  cases,  this  results  in  the  nasal  sinuses  becoming 
filled  and  distended.  This  condition  is  indistinguishable  from  the 
commonly-occurring  roup. 

The  onset  of  the  disease  is  sudden  and  the  spread  through  a  flock 
very  rapid.  An  outbreak  usually  causes  a  mortality  of  from  5  to 
25  per  cent  of  a  flock  during  a  period  of  from  two  to  four  weeks. 
The  disease  then  disappears  about  as  suddenly  as  it  began.  When 
there  is  more  than  one  flock  on  a  farm,  it  may  attack  one  flock 
after  another,  but  recurrences  of  the  disease  in  the  same  flock  are 
uncommon. 


.  '; 


Fig.  11. — An  advanced  case  of  infectious  bronchitis.     Attitude  during 

expiration. 

The  majority  of  the  fowls  that  die  do  so  within  one  or  two  days 
after  symptoms  appear.  A  large  percentage  of  affected  fowls  that 
survive  the  first  two  days  of  sickness  recover. 

The  cause  of  the  disease  is  still  undetermined.  It  has  been  quite 
definitely  proved,  however,  that  the  disease  is  infectious  and,  there- 
fore, that  it  is  probably  due  to  some  species  of  bacteria  or  virus. 

On  autopsy,  all  organs  are  apparently  normal  with  the  exception 
of  the  larynx,  the  trachea,  and  the  bronchi.  The  linings  of  these 
organs  are  usually  found  inflamed  and  their  lumens  wholly  or  par- 
tially filled  with  mucus  and  clotted  blood.  In  some  cases,  probably 
those  of  several  days'  duration,  the  mucus  in  the  larynx  has  become 
caseated.  Occasionally  caseous  mucus  is  found  extending  the  entire 
length  of  the  trachea.     In  some  birds,  the  amount  of  clotted  blood 


1927 ]  DISEASES   AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA  17 

present  exceeds  that  of  mucus.  The  collection  of  mucus  is  sometimes 
confined  to  the  lower  portion  of  the  trachea,  the  upper  portion  of  the 
trachea  and  the  larynx  being  entirely  free. 

The  degree  of  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  varies  from 
slight  to  an  extent  such  as  to  impart  a  bright  scarlet  color  to  the 
membrane.  The  lungs  appear  normal  except  for  small  areas  of 
congestion.  Death  in  many  cases  appears  to  be  due  entirely  to 
asphyxiation,  caused  by  the  filling  of  the  larynx  or  trachea  with 
caseated  mucus  or  clotted  blood. 


Fig.   12. — Same  fowl  as  fig.   11.     Attitude   during  inspiration. 

Control  and  Treatment. — The  efforts  to  control  outbreaks  of  in- 
fectious bronchitis  should  be  directed  toward  limiting  the  spread  as 
much  as  possible  until  the  outbreak  has  run  its  course.  It  is  probable 
that  the  rapid  spread  of  the  disease  is  in  a  large  measure  due  to 
infection  of  healthy  birds  with  the  mucus  and  clotted  blood  expelled 
from  the  trachea  of  affected  birds  when  they  cough.  A  very  important 
control  measure,  therefore,  is  the  removal  of  affected  birds  from  the 
flock  before  they  have  begun  to  cough.  The  flock  should  be  con- 
tinuously watched  and  all  birds  that  exhibit  the  slightest  respiratory 
difficulty  immediately  taken  out.    Other  measures  are  the  usual  sani- 


18  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClRC.  8 

tary  precautions,  such  as  cleaning  and  disinfection  of  the  houses.  A 
disinfectant,  such  as  potassium  permanganate  or  a  chlorine  solution, 
may  be  added  to  the  drinking  water.  Spraying  the  fowls  at  night 
with  various  preparations  has  been  advocated.  The  apparent  benefit 
obtained  from  such  treatment  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  out- 
breaks naturally  terminate  quickly  and  that  a  large  percentage  of 
affected  fowls  recover  even  when  no  treatment  is  given. 

A  number  of  methods  for  the  medicinal  treatment  of  diseased  birds 
have  been  used.  These  include  chlorine  solutions  or  argyrol,  applied 
in  the  larynx  and  trachea;  two  drops  of  beechwood  creosote  in  cod- 
liver  oil,  given  daily;  3-grain  doses  of  quinin  sulphate,  given  three 
times  daily ;  20  minims  of  aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia,  every  two 
hours ;  5  c.c.  doses  of  flavisol,  subcutaneously ;  20  to  30  grams  of  cal- 
cidin,  in  hot  mash,  daily ;  and  avian  mixed  bacterins.  Definite  infor- 
mation seems  to  be  lacking,  however,  regarding  the  actual  value  of 
any  of  these.  Removal  with  forceps  or  tweezers  of  masses  of  caseous 
mucus  or  clotted  blood  that  are  within  reach  in  the  larynx  or  the 
upper  portion  of  the  trachea  is  a  form  of  treatment  that  may  save  the 
lives  of  many  birds. 

COLDS   AND    ROUP 

Description. — "Colds"  are  manifested  by  a  discharge  from  one  or 
both  nostrils.  When  this  discharge  collects  in  the  nasal  sinuses  it 
causes  a  marked  swelling  of  the  face  and  is  rapidly  transformed  into 
a  cheesy  mass  just  beneath  the  eyes.  This  stage  of  the  disease  is 
called  "roup."  If  fowls  did  not  get  "colds,"  they  would  not  have 
roup.  In  turkeys,  the  material  that  collects  in  the  nasal  sinuses 
remains  a  thick,  mucilaginous  liquid.  As  a  rule,  "colds"  and  roup 
are  confined  entirely  to  the  nasal  passages,  although  in  many  cases  the 
eyelids  may  become  closed  by  the  large  swellings  beneath  them. 
Seldom,  however,  are  the  eyes  affected  in  any  other  way.  This  disease 
is  usually  the  result  of  housing  or  weather  conditions,  or  poor  con- 
dition of  the  birds  rather  than  to  any  specific  infection.  Therefore, 
the  usual  cause  of  a  large  number  in  a  flock  becoming  affected  at  one 
time  is  that  all  of  the  birds  have  been  exposed  to  the  same  unfavorable 
condition,  not  because  of  contact  of  healthy  with  diseased  birds.  It 
is  not  likely  to  seriously  affect  any  flock  that  is  properly  housed  and 
cared  for.  Improper  housing  conditions  are  probably  the  most  com- 
mon cause  of  colds.  Common  faults  in  housing  conditions  are :  pres- 
ence of  cracks  in  the  walls  back  of  the  roosts ;  poor  ventilation ;  over- 
crowding (particularly  common  in  the  case  of  young  stock)  ;  damp- 


1927] 


DISEASES  AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA 


19 


ness,  and  insanitation.  Extended  periods  of  damp,  cold  weather,  or 
periods  during  which  there  is  a  wide  variation  in  temperature  during 
the  day  and  night,  are  apt  to  cause  colds  to  become  prevalent.  Colds 
are  particularly  prevalent  in  pullets  after  they  have  been  moved  from 
brooding  or  rearing  houses  to  laying  houses.  This  is  probably  the 
result  of  the  sudden  change  of  environment.  It  is  common  for  young 
birds  that  are  infested  with  intestinal  worms  to  be  seriously  affected 
with  colds. 


Fig.  13. — Fowl  with  roup. 


Control. — The  most  important  control  measure  is  to  determine 
and,  if  possible,  remove  the  cause.  The  houses  should  be  carefully 
studied  for  defects  and  any  that  are  found  corrected.  Make  certain 
that  the  number  of  birds  is  not  too  large  for  the  house  both  during 
the  day  and  night.  When  young  birds  are  affected  examine  some 
of  them  for  intestinal  worms  and  give  the  birds  proper  treatment  if 
any  worms  are  found.  Be  sure  the  birds  are  fed  a  suitable  ration. 
Keep  the  houses  clean  and  dry. 

Treatment. — A  satisfactory  treatment  for  individual  colds  consists 
in  cleaning  out  the  nostrils  by  pressing  with  the  fingers  and  cleaning 
out  the  cleft  with  absorbent  cotton  on  forceps  or  a  match,  and  apply- 
ing a  drop  of  tincture  of  iodine  in  each  nostril  and  in  the  cleft.  This 
treatment  should  be  repeated  every  three  or  four  days.  The  treatment 
for  roup  is  more  difficult.    It  is  probably  more  economical  to  destroy 


20  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClRC.  8 

birds  having  roup  than  to  attempt  treatment  except  in  the  case  of 
birds  of  unusual  value  as  layers  or  breeders.  Treatment  consists  in 
opening  the  swelling  with  a  sharp  knife,  removing  the  mass  of  cheesy 
material  and  packing  the  cavity  with  absorbent  cotton  saturated  with 
tincture  of  iodine.  The  packing  should  be  removed,  the  cavity  cleaned 
and  a  new  pack  put  in  every  five  to  seven  days.  If,  upon  removing 
the  pack,  no  more  cheesy  material  is  found  to  have  formed,  the  pack 
may  be  left  out  and  the  wound  allowed  to  heal.  Turkeys  with  roup 
do  not  respond  to  this  treatment.  A  treatment7  for  turkeys  recently 
recommended  consists  in  reducing  the  size  of  the  swelling  by  pressing 
some  of  the  discharge  out  through  the  nostrils  and  then  injecting  1  c.c. 
(15  drops)  of  a  15  per  cent  solution  of  argyrol  with  a  fine  hypodermic 
needle.  The  injection  is  made  below  and  in  front  of  the  eye.  Great 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  tear  the  lining  of  the  nasal  passages  nor 
to  allow  the  argyrol  to  escape  into  the  tissues. 

If  a  large  percentage  of  the  flock  have  colds  the  following  treat- 
ment may  be  used.  Give  Epsom  salts  in  the  drinking  water,  using 
one  pound  for  each  125  adults  or  200  to  400  birds  under  five  months 
of  age.  The  birds  should  have  access  to  no  other  drink  while  the 
solution  of  Epsom  salts  is  consumed.  Following  this,  potassium  per- 
manganate may  be  added  to  the  drinking  water  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  produce  a  deep  purple  color.  This  should  be  replaced  by  fresh 
solution  when  the  color  changes  to  brown.  Some  tonic,  such  as  the 
following,  may  be  added  to  the  mash : 

Pulverized  gentian  1  lb. 

Pulverized  ginger    %   lb. 

Pulverized  saltpeter    x/±  lb. 

Pulverized  iron  sulphate   %  lb. 

Pulverized  nux  vomica  ^  lb. 

Add  one  ounce  of  this  mixture  to  each  five  pounds  of  mash  and 
feed  until  the  flock  has  recovered. 

If  faulty  housing  is  causing  colds  reliance  should  not  be  placed 
on  the  treatment  just  described. 

NUTRITIONAL  ROUP 

Description. — A  disease  very  similar  to  roup  in  manifestation, 
which  may  affect  a  large  percentage  of  a  flock  at  one  time,  may  be 
due  to  nutritional  factors.  The  symptoms  of  this  disease  are  weakness 
(fig.  14);  emaciation;  a  discharge  from  one  or  both  nostrils  which 

7  Tyzzer,  E.  E.  The  injection  of  argyrol  for  the  treatment  of  sinusitis  in 
turkeys.     Cornell  Vet.,  16:  221-224.     1926. 


1927]  DISEASES   AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA  21 


Fig.   14. — Typical  appearance   of   fowls   with   nutritional  roup. 


Fig.  15. — Cheesy  material  in  the  eye  of  a  fowl  with  nutritional  roup. 


22  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClRC.  8 


Fig.  16. — An  advanced  case  of  nutritional  roup,  showing  the  pharynx  and 
esophagus  studded  with  pustules. 


1927 ]  DISEASES  AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA  23 


Fig.  17. — Kidneys  of  a  fowl  with  nutritional  roup. 


24  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION- SERVICE  [ClRC.  8 

may  be  followed  by  a  swelling  of  the  face  beneath  the  eyes;  a  dis- 
charge from  the  eyes  which  may  glue  the  eyelids  together  and  be 
followed  by  the  formation  of  an  adherent  white  film  over  the  third 
eyelid  and  a  mass  of  white  cheesy  material  within  the  eyelids  (fig.  15)  ; 
the  formation  of  a  yellowish  white,  round,  cheesy  pustule-like  patches 
in  the  mouth  and  throat  of  about  the  size  of  a  pinhead  (fig.  16)  ;  and 
occasionally  by  the  formation  of  masses  of  white  cheesy  material  in 
the  cleft  or  elsewhere  in  the  mouth.  This  disease  may  be  distinguished 
from  chicken-pox  by  the  absence  of  yellow  color  in  the  cheesy  material 
and  by  the  small  size  of  the  patches  and  color  of  the  cheesy  material 
in  the  mouth.  It  may  be  distinguished  from  "colds"  and  roup  by  the 
presence  of  lesions  in  the  eye  and  mouth,  in  addition  to  nasal  dis- 
charge and  swelling  of  the  face. 

Postmortem  examination  of  birds  that  have  died  usually  shows 
the  kidneys  to  be  very  pale  and  marked  with  a  network  of  very  fine 
white  lines  (fig.  17).  Occasionally  there  is  also  found  a  deposit  of  a 
white  material  on  the  surface  of  the  liver,  on  the  membrane  around 
the  heart,  or  elsewhere  on  the  surface  of  the  organs. 

It  has  been  definitely  determined  that  this  disease  is  due  to  a 
deficiency  of  vitamin  A  in  the  ration.  Since  most  of  the  vitamin  A 
in  poultry  rations  is  supplied  by  green  food,  nutritional  roup  usually 
occurs  when  there  is  a  shortage  of  this  foodstuff.  It  may  occur  even 
though  the  birds  are  fed  some  green  food  if  the  amount  is  insufficient. 
It  has  also  been  found  in  flocks  which  had  access  to  growing  greens, 
but  which  were  at  a  distance  from  the  poultry  house.  In  these  cases 
some  of  the  fowls  were  getting  a  sufficient  supply  of  greens  but  most 
of  them  were  not  going  far  enough  away  from  the  house  to  get  it. 

Control. — This  condition  can  be  readily  controlled  by  supplying 
the  birds  with  more  vitamin  A.  This  is  usually  accomplished  by  in- 
creasing the  amount  of  green  food.  Yellow  carrots,  alfalfa  leaf  and 
blossom  meal,  or  cod-liver  oil  may  be  substituted  for  greens.  The 
alfalfa  leaf  and  blossom  meal  and  the  cod-liver  oil  are  added  to  the 
mash  in  the  proportion  of  5  pounds  and  1  quart  respectively  in  100 
pounds  of  mash.  Very  sick  birds  should  be  given  1  to  2  c.c.  (15-30 
drops)  cod-liver  oil  daily. 

RUPTURED   YOLKS 

Description. — This  disease  usually  occurs  among  flocks  of  pullets 
during  the  period  of  heavy  production.  Occasionally  older  birds  are 
affected.  It  is  manifested  by  a  rather  small  but  steady  loss  of  birds. 
The  infected  fowls  are  usually  sick  but  a  very  short  time  before  death 
occurs  and  in  a  great  many  cases  are  found  dead  rather  than  sick. 


1927 ]  DISEASES  AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA  25 

The  symptoms  of  the  sick  birds  are  droopiness,  diarrhea,  dis- 
coloration of  the  comb,  usually  followed  by  death  within  twenty-four 
hours.  Birds  may  be  found  dead  in  the  nests  or  on  the  dropping 
boards  under  the  roosts.  The  fowls  affected  are  those  that  are  laying 
well. 

The  post-mortem  examination  of  dead  birds  usually  shows  an 
enlarged,  soft  liver  which  may  have  minute  yellowish  white  spots; 
sometimes  small  blood  spots  in  the  fat  at  the  base  of  the  heart  or  on 
the  gizzard ;  sometimes  inflammation  of  the  intestines ;  and  practically 
always  egg  yolk  free  in  the  abdominal  cavity.  The  egg  yolk  may  be 
like  one  freshly  broken  or  may  be  in  the  form  of  a  cheesy  mass.  In 
many  of  these  fowls  the  presence  of  fowl  cholera  or  fowl  typhoid 
germs  can  be  demonstrated.  The  germs  found  in  such  cases,  however, 
are  of  such  low  virulence  that  death  can  rarely  be  caused  by  feeding 
or  inoculating  healthy  birds  with  them. 

Control. — This  disease  appears  to  be  the  result  of  heavy  feeding 
and  production,  rather  than  entirely  to  infection  with  the  fowl  cholera 
or  fowl  typhoid  germ.  Good  success  in  controlling  this  disease  has 
been  obtained  by  adding  wheat  bran  to  the  mash  to  make  it  bulkier. 
This  will  automatically  reduce  the  amount  by  weight  of  mash  con- 
sumed and  should  also  decrease  egg  production.  If  the  losses  have 
been  very  heavy  the  mash  should  be  entirely  replaced  by  bran  until 
losses  stop.  If,  however,  not  many  birds  are  dying,  the  mash  can 
be  made  one-half  bran.  It  is  also  advisable  to  thoroughly  clean  and 
disinfect  the  houses  and  to  use  potassium  permanganate  in  sufficient 
amount  to  give  the  drinking  water  a  claret  color,  or  to  use  some  simi- 
lar disinfectant  in  the  drinking  water.  A  one  to  two-thousand  solu- 
tion of  bichloride  of  mercury  is  effective  and  safe.  This  must  be  used 
only  in  wood,  glass,  or  earthenware  vessels  and  must  be  kept  away 
from  other  animals  or  from  children. 


FOWL  CHOLERA 

Description. — This  disease  is  said  to  be  responsible  for  severe 
losses  among  chickens  in  some  states.  In  California,  however,  it 
appears  to  be  a  relatively  unimportant  cause  of  chicken  mortality. 
The  fowl  cholera  germ  is  often  found  in  association  with  ruptured 
yolk  (see  p.  24)  but  the  strains  of  the  organism  obtained  from  such 
cases  are  of  such  low  virulence  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  produce 
disease  when  healthy  chickens  are  inoculated  with  them.  Rather 
severe  outbreaks  of  the  disease  in  ducks  and  turkeys  do  occasionally 


26  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClEC.  8 

take  place.  In  most  instances  such  outbreaks  could  be  attributed  as 
much  to  the  feeding  and  care  the  birds  had  received  or  to  insanitary 
conditions  of  the  premises  as  to  the  fowl  cholera  germ. 

Even  though  the  probability  of  severe  losses  from  this  disease  may 
not  appear  to  be  great,  it  is  always  advisable  to  send  specimens  to 
a  bacteriological  laboratory  for  examination  whenever  sudden  death 
of  a  few  birds  in  good  flesh  occurs.  This  is  the  only  means  by  which 
a  definite  diagnosis  can  be  made. 

Control. — Fowl  cholera  is  not  apt  to  occur  if  fowls  are  provided 
with  sanitary  yards,  clean,  properly  constructed  houses,  and  correct 
rations.  If  an  outbreak  should  occur,  the  amount  of  food  should  be 
reduced  and  sanitary  measures,  such  as  cleaning  and  disinfection  of 
the  houses,  feed  hoppers,  drinking  vessels,  and  all  other  accessories, 
and  the  isolation  of  the  sick  should  be  carefully  carried  out.  Reliance 
cannot  be  placed  upon  fowl  cholera  vaccines  or  bacterins  in  preventing 
or  curing  this  disease. 

FOWL  TYPHOID 

The  occurrence  of  fowl  typhoid  in  chickens  and  turkeys  is  not 
uncommon  in  some  sections  of  California.  It  has  been  encountered 
more  frequently  in  general  farm  flocks  than  in  commercial  flocks. 
The  fowl  typhoid  germ  is  often  found  in  association  with  ruptured 
yolk  (see  p.  24)  but  evidence  to  prove  that  it  is  a  cause  of  this  con- 
dition is  lacking.  Predisposing  causes,  such  as  exposure,  improper 
diet,  inadequate  or  insanitary  quarters,  appear  to  be  necessary  for 
an  outbreak  of  this  disease  to  occur  and,  therefore,  the  danger  of  its 
occurring  in  flocks  that  are  properly  housed,  fed  and  cared  for  is 
not  great.  The  control  measures  given  for  fowl  cholera  apply  also 
to  fowl  typhoid. 

The  fowl  typhoid  germ  is  becoming  of  greater  importance  as  a 
cause  of  disease  of  young  chicks.  The  manifestations  of  this  disease 
are  identical  with  those  of  bacillary  white  diarrhea  and  can  be  dis- 
tinguished from  it  only  by  bacteriological  methods.  Hens  may  acquire 
an  infection  of  the  ovaries  with  the  germ  and  transmit  it  through 
eggs  to  offspring  in  the  same  manner  as  the  bacillary  white  diarrhea 
germ.  The  method  of  prevention  and  control  of  fowl  typhoid  of 
chicks  is  the  same  as  for  bacillary  white  diarrhea.  The  agglutination 
test  for  the  detection  of  hens  that  are  carriers  of  the  bacillary  white 
diarrhea  germ  will  also  detect  carriers  of  the  fowl  typhoid  germ. 


1927 ]  DISEASES   AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA  27 


TUBERCULOSIS 

Description. — This  disease  is  caused  by  a  specific  germ  and  can- 
not be  produced  in  any  other  way.  Filthy,  damp,  crowded  houses 
and  yards  serve  to  hasten  the  spread  of  the  disease  through  a  flock 
when  the  infection  is  present  but  such  conditions  are  never  responsible 
for  the  start  of  the  disease.  Infected  birds  exhibit  symptoms  of  infec- 
tion only  in  the  advanced  stages.  Then  they  become  emaciated,  the 
comb  and  shanks  are  pale  and  shriveled,  and  some  are  lame.  Losses 
from  this  disease  do  not  often  occur  in  birds  less  than  one  year  old. 


wk       ^%u€  '  ^^M^fcdJI 

k^j|^| 

fe    "  f  !^J 

.:..  JHB 

|||      - 

Fig.  18. — Tuberculosis  nodules  on  the  intestines  and  liver  of  a  fowl. 

The  lesions  of  tuberculosis  consist  of  round  yellow  spots  varying 
in  size  from  a  pinhead  to  a  pea  in  the  liver  and  spleen,  and  nodules 
varying  in  size  from  a  pea  to  a  small  walnut  on  the  intestines  or  on 
the  membrane  which  holds  the  intestines  in  place  (fig.  18).  Lesions 
also  occur  less  frequently  in  the  kidneys,  lungs,  skin  and  bones. 

Tuberculosis  spreads  by  fowls  eating  substances,  such  as  food  and 
soil  contaminated  by  the  discharges  from  the  infected  birds.  The  loss 
from  tuberculosis  is  not  apt  to  be  great  at  any  one  time,  but  it  will  be 
constant  and  becomes  increasingly  severe  as  time  goes  on. 

Control. — The  observance  of  strict  sanitary  precautions  and  the 
practice  of  disposing  of  all  fowls  over  two  years  old  may  assist  in 
decreasing  loss  from  the  death  of  infected  birds,  but  will  accomplish 
little  in  lessening  the  extent  of  the  infection  in  a  flock.  There  are 
two  possible  methods  of  eradicating  tuberculosis  from  a  flock.     The 


28 


CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE 


[CIRC.  8 


first  consists  in  disposing  of  all  birds  in  the  flock,  thoroughly  cleaning 
and  disinfecting  the  house,  leaving  the  yards  vacant  for  a  period  of 
a  few  months  and  starting  in  again  with  new  stock.  If  the  yards  are 
left  vacant  during  hot  or  dry  weather  one  or  two  months  is  sufficient. 
If,  however,  the  ground  is  moist,  from  six  months  to  a  year  may  be 
required  for  the  germs  to  die  out.  This  is  the  most  practical  method 
to  use  in  small  flocks  or  flocks  which  are  raised  solely  for  egg  pro- 
duction. 


Fig.  19. — Fowl  showing  a  positive  reaction  to  the  tuberculin  test. 


The  other  method  of  eradicating  tuberculosis  is  by  means  of  the 
tuberculin  test.  This  test  is  made  by  injecting  %5  to  %o  cubic  centi- 
meter of  substance  known  as  tuberculin  into  the  skin  of  the  wattle. 
If  an  injected  bird  has  tuberculosis  the  wattle  will  swell  (fig.  19).  It 
is  necessary  to  make  repeated  tests  at  intervals  of  about  six  months  to 
entirely  free  a  flock  from  tuberculosis  by  this  method.  Following  each 
test  all  reacting  birds  must  be  removed  from  the  flock  and  the  houses 
given  a  thorough  cleaning  and  disinfecting.  It  is  recommended  to 
use  this  test  only  in  flocks  that  are  valuable  as  breeders. 


1927  ]  DISEASES  AND  PARASITES  OF  POULTRY  IN    CALIFORNIA  29 


COCCIDIOSIS 

Description. — Coccidiosis  is  one  of  the  most  destructive  diseases 
of  young  chickens.  It  is  so  widespread  that,  in  poultry  districts, 
practically  all  established  poultry  farms  are  infected  and  new  farms 
quickly  become  so.  The  heaviest  losses  occur  in  chicks  from  four  to 
eight  weeks  old.  In  infected  flocks  from  25  to  50  per  cent  and  some- 
times nearly  all  of  the  chicks  die  in  two  or  three  weeks.  The  large 
number  of  unthrifty  or  "cull"  chicks  among  the  survivors  in  infected 
flocks  that  have  not  been  given  effective  treatment  sometimes  causes 
a  greater  loss  to  the  poultryman  than  the  mortality.  Older  birds 
become  affected  with  a  slowly  fatal  (chronic)  type  of  the  disease, 
which  may  be  general  in  the  flock  or,  as  frequently  happens,  affect 
only  a  few  birds.  The  disease  frequently  occurs  in  young  turkeys 
as  well  as  in  chickens. 

Coccidiosis  is  caused  by  the  presence  in  the  intestines  of  chicks  of 
a  microscopic,  protozoan  parasite  called  Eimeria  avium.8  The  parasite 
develops  and  multiplies  in  the  cells  of  the  walls  of  the  intestines.  The 
disease  results  from  the  injury  to  the  cells  during  this  period  of 
development.  In  young  chicks,  the  ceca  (blind  pouches)  are  the  parts 
affected,  while  in  older  birds  with  the  chronic  type  of  the  disease, 
the  small  intestines,  rather  than  the  ceca,  are  involved. 

Severe  outbreaks  of  coccidiosis  so  frequently  occur  in  flocks  which 
have  not  received  suitable  food  or  care  or  which  are  not  properly 
housed,  that  some  poultrymen  believe  it  to  be  due  to  such  conditions. 
These  conditions  do  not  cause  coccidiosis,  but  render  them  more 
susceptible  by  lowering  their  natural  resistance. 

The  disease  is  spread  by  chicks  drinking  water  or  eating  food,  litter 
or  soil  contaminated  by  the  droppings  of  diseased  chicks.  It  has  been 
demonstrated  that  these  parasites  will  remain  alive  in  soil  for  a  year 
or  more.  Therefore,  chicks  allowed  to  run  in  yards  in  which  infected 
chicks  were  kept  the  preceding  year  are  very  liable  to  become  infected. 
Thus  far  no  practical  method  of  chemical  treatment  of  the  soil  to 
destroy  these  parasites  has  been  developed. 


s  Dr.  E.  E.  Tyzzer  has  recently  suggested  that  there  are  two  species  of  coccidia 
in  chickens.  One  species  is  thought  to  be  non-pathogenic  and  not  to  produce 
hemorrhages,  while  the  other  is  considered  to  be  pathogenic  and  the  causative 
organism  involved  in  acute  attacks  accompanied  by  the  voiding  of  bloody  drop- 
pings. Observations  in  California  support  the  idea  that  two  species  of  coccidia 
exist  but  do  not  permit  the  conclusion  that  the  one  which  does  not  cause  hemor- 
rhage is  strictly  non-pathogenic. 


30  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClRC.  8 

Attendants  may  carry  infection  into  brooder  houses  from  con- 
taminated yards.  Chicks  may  become  infected  when  allowed  to  run 
in  orchards  or  gardens  that  have  been  fertilized  with  chicken  manure. 
The  infection  may  be  introduced  on  to  new  premises  by  such  means 
as  healthy  adult  fowls  which  harbor  the  germs,  wild  birds,  dust-laden 
wind,  visitors,  etc.  It  is  improbable  that  infected  hens  ever  transmit 
the  disease  through  the  egg  to  their  offspring. 

Usually  the  first  indication  of  the  presence  of  coccidiosis  in  a  flock 
of  chicks  is  droopiness  of  a  few.  The  affected  birds  remain  close  to 
the  hover,  do  not  eat,  and  stand  with  wings  drooping,  head  drawn 
in,  and  eyes  closed  for  long  periods  of  time  unless  disturbed.  This 
attitude  is  quite  characteristic  of  the  disease  (fig.  20).  Droopy  birds 
may  be  seen  for  two  or  three  days  before  any  deaths  occur. 

The  droppings  of  affected  chicks  frequently  contain  blood.  The 
amount  varies  from  that  sufficient  only  to  slightly  tinge  the  droppings 
to  enough  to  give  them  the  appearance  of  consisting  entirely  of  blood. 
The  bloody  droppings  usually  are  seen  in  the  early  stages  of  the  out- 
break. Occasionally  they  are  the  first  indication  of  disease  observed. 
Although  the  presence  of  blood  in  the  droppings  is  a  frequently 
occurring  and  quite  characteristic  symptom,  in  many  outbreaks  of 
coccidiosis  this  does  not  occur.  Therefore,  "bloody  diarrhea,"  the 
name  for  the  disease  commonly  used  by  poultrymen,  does  not  always 
apply. 

The  heaviest  mortality  usually  occurs  during  the  first  week  or  ten 
days  after  the  first  droopiness  appears.  After  this,  deaths  become 
less  frequent  but  may  continue  for  from  three  to  four  weeks.  When 
effective  measures  of  control  are  not  adopted,  a  large  percentage  of 
the  survivors  fail  to  develop  normally.  Such  birds  may  never  become 
profitable  and  the  loss  to  the  poultrymen  from  this  source  may  be 
as  great  as  that  resulting  from  mortality. 

The  changes  in  the  organs  observed  upon  examination  of  dead 
chicks  are  usually  confined  to  the  ceca.  The  walls  of  these  organs 
are,  as  a  rule,  thickened.  The  ceca  may  be  normal  in  size  or  markedly 
distended.  They  often  contain  sufficient  blood  to  give  them  a  reddish 
appearance.  The  ceca  of  chicks  which  linger  for  a  week  or  more 
before  death  often  contain  an  accumulation  of  grayish  or  yellowish- 
white,  cheesy  material  (fig.  21).  Frequently  chicks  which  have  died 
of  coccidiosis  exhibit  no  definite  marked  change  in  the  appearance 
of  the  ceca  or  of  the  cecal  contents.  In  such  cases,  the  disease  can  be 
recognized  only  by  the  finding  of  oocysts  on  microscopic  examination 
of  the  contents  of  the  ceca. 


1927 ]  DISEASES   AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA  31 


Fig.  20.— Chick  with  coccidiosis. 


» 

* 


i 


I 


m 


~      * 


■ 


Fig.  21. — Ceca  of  chick  with  coccidiosis. 


32  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClRC.  8 

Occasionally  the  liver  is  involved.  The  liver  lesions,  when  present, 
consist  of  small,  white  or  yellowish  specks  on  the  surface. 

The  chronic  type  of  the  disease  is  seen  in  older  birds,  usually 
pullets  between  the  ages  of  four  and  eight  months.  It  develops 
slowly  and  may  affect  only  a  few  fowls  in  a  flock.  The  prominent 
symptoms  are  loss  of  appetite,  roughened,  dirty  plumage,  gradual 
loss  of  flesh,  paleness  of  the  comb  and  wattles,  leg  weakness  or 
"paralysis"  of  the  legs,  or  sluggish,  weak  movements  when  walking. 
In  extreme  cases  of  leg  weakness,  the  fowl  may  lie  on  its  side  with  both 
legs  extended  backward  (fig.  22),  or  it  may  lie  on  its  breast  with  one 
leg  extended  forward  and  the  other  backward  (fig.  23).  Some  pullets 
that  are  unable  to  stand  appear  quite  normal  in  a  sitting  posture. 


Fig.  22. — Seven-months-old  pullet  with  chronic  coccidiosis. 

Death  from  chronic  infection  occurs  only  after  several  days  or  even 
weeks  of  sickness.  Chronic  coccidiosis  may  be  easily  confused  with 
the  symptoms  resulting  from  external  parasites,  intestinal  worms  or 
nutritional  disturbances. 

In  pullets  with  the  chronic  type  of  the  disease,  the  lesions  are 
confined  to  the  small  intestines.  The  intestinal  walls  become  thickened 
and  the  lining  has  a  spongy  appearance.  In  severe  cases,  red  blotches 
or  hemorrhagic  areas  may  be  present.  Occasionally  there  is  a  slough- 
ing of  patches  of  the  lining.    The  ceca  rarely  show  any  change. 

Chronic  coccidiosis  can  be  differentiated  from  the  effects  on 
chickens  of  certain  species  of  intestinal  worms  or  from  some  nutri- 
tional disturbances  only  by  microscopic  examination  of  intestinal  con- 
tents or  of  scrapings  from  the  lining  of  the  intestines  of  affected  fowls. 


192  7]  DISEASES   AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA  33 

Frequently  both  coccidial  parasites  and  one  or  more  species  of  intes- 
tinal worms  may  be  present  in  the  same  fowl.  Therefore,  before  an 
intelligent  decision  can  be  made  as  to  the  treatment  of  fowls  suspected 
of  having  chronic  coccidiosis,  it  must  be  determined:  first,  whether 
coccidial  parasites  are  present ;  second,  whether  other  intestinal  para- 
sites are  present;  and  third,  whether  there  is  any  relation  between 
nutrition  and  the  condition  of  the  fowls. 

Control. — Outbreaks  of  coccidiosis  can  usually  be  promptly  con- 
trolled by  feeding  sufficient  dry  or  liquid  skim-milk  or  buttermilk 
and  by  maintaining  proper  sanitation  in  the  brooder  houses  and 
yards.  If  the  sanitary  measures  are  neglected  little  benefit  from  milk 
feeding  can  be  expected. 


Fig.  23. — Four-months-old  pullet  with  chronic  coccidiosis. 

If  dry  milk  is  used  it  should  constitute  40  per  cent  of  the  mash. 
The  composition  of  the  mash  is  not  of  importance  as  long  as  it  con- 
tains 40  per  cent  of  dry  milk  and  makes  a  suitable  mixture  for  feeding 
to  young  chickens.  A  mixture  that  has  been  found  satisfactory  con- 
sists of  the  following  ingredients : 

Dry  skim-milk  or  buttermilk 40  pounds 

Wheat  bran  10  pounds 

Yellow   cornmeal    30  pounds 

Ground  barley  20  pounds 

Start  feeding  the  mash  as  soon  as  the  presence  of  the  disease  is 
determined.  Keep  the  mash  constantly  before  the  chicks  in  hoppers 
or  troughs  constructed  so  as  to  prevent  waste. 


34  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClRC.  8 

Feed  grain  once  or  twice  daily  but  restrict  the  amount  to  from 
one-third  to  one-half  the  weight  of  mash  consumed.  If  more  grain 
is  fed,  mash  consumption  will  be  reduced  and  less  satisfactory  results 
will  be  obtained.  Continue  this  system  of  mash  and  grain  feeding  as 
long  as  there  is  any  indication  of  the  disease.  This  usually  requires 
from  one  to  two  weeks.  If  desired,  the  ration  can  then  be  very  grad- 
ually changed  to  the  one  in  use  before  coccidiosis  started.  Do  not 
start  the  change  in  the  ration  too  soon  nor  make  it  too  abruptly.  Feed 
greens  as  usual.  If  the  supply  of  greens  is  insufficient,  add  one 
quart  of  cod-liver  oil  to  each  one  hundred  pounds  of  mash.  This  is 
also  advisable  when  weather  conditions  or  weakness  of  chicks  prevents 
them  from  running  outside. 

Chicks  that  are  run  on  contaminated  soil  are  less  liable  to  become 
fatally  infected  with  coccidiosis  if  they  are  fed  according  to  this 
method  from  the  fourth  to  the  eighth  week.  Feeding  mash  containing 
40  per  cent  dry  milk  for  a  longer  period  is  not  recommended. 

When  liquid  vnilk,  such  as  buttermilk  or  skim-milk,  is  to  be  used, 
it  should  be  of  good  quality.  Keep  the  milk  constantly  before  the 
chicks  in  fountains  or  troughs.  If  troughs  are  used,  provide  covers 
that  will  prevent  the  chicks  from  walking  in  them  or  roosting  over 
them.  Provide  sufficient  containers  so  that  all  the  chicks  can  drink 
freely  and  the  weaker  chicks  will  not  be  crowded  away.  Allow  the 
chicks  no  water.  Feed  no  mash.  Feed  grain  twice  daily,  very  spar- 
ingly in  the  morning  and  a  larger  amount  at  night.  Feed  greens  as 
usual.  Add  one  quart  of  cod-liver  oil  to  each  one  hundred  pounds 
of  mash  if  the  supply  of  greens  is  insufficient  or  the  chicks  cannot 
go  out  of  doors.  After  all  evidence  of  the  disease  has  disappeared, 
the  feeding  of  mash  may  be  very  gradually  resumed,  water  again 
given,  and  the  amount  of  milk  reduced.  Do  not  start  this  change  in 
feeding  too  soon  nor  complete  it  too  rapidly. 

A  condensed  milk  product,  such  as  semi-solid  buttermilk,  after 
dilution,  may  be  used  in  the  same  manner  as  buttermilk.  Use  one  part 
to  two  or  three  parts  of  water.  Greater  dilutions  are  less  beneficial. 
Many  poultrymen  report  satisfactory  results  from  the  use  of  undiluted 
semi-solid  buttermilk.    If  it  is  fed  in  this  way,  water  must  be  supplied. 

The  sanitary  measures  recommended  are  designed  to  prevent  the 
spread  of  the  germs  from  the  diseased  chicks  and  to  provide  con- 
ditions favorable  to  maintaining  good  health  so  that  the  natural 
resistance  of  the  chicks  to  disease  will  not  be  lowered. 

When  coccidiosis  appears,  thoroughly  clean  the  brooder  houses  or 
move  the  chicks  to  other  brooders  that  have  been  cleaned  and  disin- 


192 7J  DISEASES  AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA  35 

fected.  Cover  the  floor  with  litter.  Clean  the  houses  and  put  in 
fresh  litter  daily.  When  chicks  are  fed  liberally  with  milk,  either 
dry  or  liquid,  the  droppings  become  watery  and  are  voided  frequently. 
This,  in  itself,  is  not  harmful.  The  watery  consistency  of  the  droppings, 
however,  causes  the  litter  and  floor  to  become  wet  in  a  short  time. 
This  makes  it  necessary  to  clean  out  the  houses  and  renew  the  litter 
daily  in  order  to  keep  the  floor  dry.  The  daily  cleaning  also  removes 
from  the  houses  a  large  percentage  of  the  coccidial  parasites  present 
in  the  droppings  from  infected  chicks.  Divide  the  chicks  into  as 
many  flocks  as  the  number  of  brooders  available  will  permit.  When 
the  flocks  are  small,  it  is  easier  to  keep  the  houses  clean  and  dry.  Be 
sure  that  the  brooder  houses  are  kept  warm  enough  and  are  well 
ventilated.  Warmth  and  fresh  air  are  essential  for  the  health  of  the 
chicks  and  also  assist  in  keeping  the  houses  dry.  Separate  the  visibly 
sick  chicks  from  those  apparently  healthy  as  soon  as  the  disease 
appears.  Kill  the  worst  cases.  Burn  the  dead.  Watch  the  healthy 
chicks  carefully  so  that  those  that  later  become  sick  can  be  promptly 
detected  and  removed.  Contamination  of  the  soil  with  coccidiosis 
germs  is  greatest  in  that  part  of  the  yards  adjacent  to  the  houses 
where  the  chicks  spend  most  of  their  time  when  outside.  The  surface 
of  this  part  of  the  yard  should  be  scraped  or  swept  and  the  sweepings 
removed.  The  entire  yard  should  be  plowed  as  deeply  as  possible. 
Corners  and  other  places  that  cannot  be  reached  by  the  plow  should 
be  spaded. 

In  experimental  trials  to  determine  the  value  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
catechu,  a  mixture  of  bichloride  of  mercury  and  sulphocarbolates 
(coccidiosis  powder),  potassium  dichromate,  powdered  ipecac,  and 
bismuth  subnitrate,  for  combating  coccidiosis,  none  of  these  drugs 
were  found  to  be  effective. 

BACILLARY  WHITE    DIARRHEA   OF   CHICKS 

Description. — Bacillary  white  diarrhea  is  a  highly  contagious  disease 
of  young  chicks,  caused  by  infection  with  a  specific  germ  known  as 
Bacterium  pullorum.  The  infection  also  occurs  in  adults,  but  is  seldom 
recognized  since  it  is  localized  in  the  ovaries  (fig.  24)  and  usually  pro- 
duces no  visible  symptoms.  However,  the  disease  in  adults,  breeding 
stock  in  particular,  presents  a  serious  problem  because  some  of  the 
eggs  laid  by  such  fowls  carry  the  infection  and  transmit  it  directly 
to  chicks  hatched  from  them.  Infection  from  this  source  is  the  most 
common  cause  of  the  start  of  outbreaks  among  chicks.  Outbreaks 
may  also  start  from  infection  picked  up  by  chicks  that  are  hatched 


36  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClEC.  8 

in  contaminated  incubators  or  reared  in  contaminated  brooders  or 
pens.  The  droppings  of  infected  chicks  contain  large  numbers  of  the 
germs  and  are  the  means  of  rapidly  spreading  the  disease  through  a 
flock. 

The  disease  usually  appears  within  three  days  after  the  chicks  are 
hatched.  The  mortality  is  usually  high,  the  average  probably  being 
more  than  50  per  cent.  Losses  are  greatest  during  the  first  two  weeks 
but  may  continue  for  three  or  four  weeks.  In  the  acute  type  of  the 
disease  the  chicks  become  drowsy,  their  wings  droop,  they  sway  back 
and  forth  when  in  a  standing  position  and  move  with  an  unsteady 
gait  and  many  of  them  die  within  a  few  hours.  There  is  often  a 
deposit  of  chalk-like  material  on  the  feathers  around  the  vent.  In 
cases  of  long  duration,  the  accumulation  may  reach  sufficient  size  to 
block  up  the  vent.  Chicks  that  survive  for  a  longer  period  appear 
weak,  dull,  fail  to  grow,  and  have  a  tendency  to  the  development  of 
a  large  abdomen.  Mildly  infected  chicks  grow  to  maturity  and, 
while  they  appear  to  be  healthy,  harbor  the  infection  in  the  ovaries 
and  become  carriers  of  it. 

The  liver  of  dead  chicks  is  usually  either  a  uniform  yellowish- 
brown  color  or  yellowish-brown  streaked  with  red.  Unabsorbed  yolk 
is  nearly  always  present  in  the  abdominal  cavity.  The  yolk  may  be 
nearly  full  size,  liquid  in  consistency,  and  yellowish-brown  in  color 
or  smaller  in  size  and  gelatinous  or  cheesy,  according  to  the  length 
of  time  the  chick  may  have  lived.  Changes  in  the  other  organs  are 
difficult  to  detect. 

Disease  in  young  chicks  manifested  by  symptoms  and  lesions 
identical  with  those  due  to  infection  with  Bacterium  pullorum  fre- 
quently results  from  "common"  causes  such  as  improper  incubation, 
overheating,  chilling,  improper  feeding  and  housing  or  any  other 
brooding  error  that  may  lower  the  vitality  of  the  chicks.  The  only 
means  of  distinguishing  bacillary  white  diarrhea  from  disease  due 
to  a  non-infectious  cause  is  by  bacteriologic  examination.  Owners  of 
flocks  in  which  losses  suspected  to  be  due  to  bacillary  white  diarrhea 
occur  should  submit  specimens  for  examination  to  the  laboratories 
of  the  Division  of  Veterinary  Science,  University  of  California. 

Prevention  and  Control. — Bacillary  white  diarrhea  is  such  a  de- 
structive disease  that  every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  prevent  its 
occurrence. 

The  danger  of  chicks  becoming  infected  from  contaminated 
incubators  and  brooders  can  be  overcome  by  always  cleaning  and 
disinfecting  incubators  before  eggs  are  set  and  brooders   (including 


1927]  DISEASES  AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA  37 

troughs,  fountains  and  other  accessories)  before  chicks  are  placed  in 
them.  Many  of  the  chicks  that  hatch  from  infected  eggs  are  under- 
sized or  weak.  Therefore  the  practice  of  destroying  all  "cull"  chicks 
as  soon  as  they  hatch  would,  in  some  instances  at  least,  assist  in  pre- 
venting a  serious  outbreak. 


Fig.  24. — Ovaries  of  a  hen  infected  with  the  bacillary  white  diarrhea  germ. 
Numbers  1  and  2  are  normal  yolks.  Numbers  3  to  9  and  many  of  the  smaller 
yolks  are  abnormal  because  of  the  infection. 

The  mature  hen  as  a  source  of  the  infection  in  chicks  may  be 
avoided  by  securing  eggs,  chicks  and  breeding  stock  only  from  flocks 
that  are  free  from  infection  with  the  bacillary  white  diarrhea  germ. 


38 


CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClRC.  8 


Figs.  25  and  26. — Securing  blood  for  agglutination  test  for  bacillary  white 
diarrhea  infection  in  breeding  stock. 


1927]  DISEASES  AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA  39 

Many  infected  hens  can  be  eliminated  by  careful  culling  of  flocks 
and  using  for  breeding  purposes  only  the  highest  producing  hens. 
The  only  definite  means  of  detecting  infected  hens,  however,  is  a 
blood  test,  known  as  an  agglutination  test  (figs.  25  and  26).  A  single 
test  will  not  detect  all  birds  in  a  flock  that  are  infected,  but  when  a 
flock  is  tested  annually,  or  more  frequently,  and  only  birds  that  pass 
the  test  are  used  for  breeding,  the  danger  of  losses  from  bacillary 
white  diarrhea  among  offspring  from  the  flock  will  be  minimized. 
Detailed  information  regarding  the  test  may  be  obtained  from  the 
Division  of  Veterinary  Science,  University  of  California,  Berkeley. 

There  are  no  specific  measures  to  be  used  in  combating  outbreaks. 
Sanitary  precautions,  such  as  the  prompt  removal  and  destruction 
of  all  sick  and  dead  chicks,  dividing  the  flock  into  small  units,  and 
moving  the  chicks  into  cleaned  and  disinfected  pens,  will  assist  in 
reducing  the  mortality.  Drugs  have  been  found  to  be  of  little  benefit. 
Recent  experiments  at  the  Rhode  Island  .Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  however,  indicate  that  replacing  the  drinking  water  with  a 
dilute  solution  of  a  chlorine  disinfectant  may  help  to  decrease  mor- 
tality. 


Fig.  27. — These  birds  were  raised  together  in  a  well  lighted  house  and  fed 
the  same  ration.  The  one  on  the  left  was  placed  in  a  box  outside  in  the  sunshine 
for  about  an  hour  each  day.  The  one  on  the  right  received  sunlight  only  through 
a  glass  window.  This  is  a  pronounced  case  of  leg  weakness  due  entirely  to  lack 
of  exposure  to  direct  sunlight. 


40  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClRC.  8 

LEG   WEAKNESS  OF   CHICKS 

Leg  weakness  is  of  common  occurrence  among  chicks  and  for 
many  years  was  thought  to  be  due  to  improper  diet  and  confinement 
in  houses.  It  is  now  known  that  the  trouble  results  when  chicks  do 
not  get  sufficient  exposure  to  direct  sunlight  (fig.  27).  A  deficiency 
of  minerals  in  the  ration  may  also  cause  leg  weakness,  but  the  common 
cause  is  a  deficiency  of  direct  sunlight.  It  has  been  generally  known 
that  flocks  in  which  leg  weakness  occurred  were  benefited  by  being 
allowed  to  run  outside.  The  benefit  is  due  to  exposture  to  the  sunlight, 
not  to  the  chicks  getting  on  the  ground  as  was  commonly  supposed. 

Leg  weakness  is  apt  to  occur  whenever  there  is  a  long  period  of 
cloudy  or  rainy  weather  during  the  brooding  season.  Relief  is 
obtained  by  making  certain  that  the  chicks  get  one  or  two  hours  of 
exposure  to  direct  sunlight  every  day.  Sunlight  that  passes  through 
an  ordinary  glass  window  is  of  no  benefit.  Cod-liver  oil  possesses 
the  same  property  of  preventing  and  curing  leg  weakness  as  sunlight. 
It  is  usually  easier  to  give  cod-liver  oil  than  to  see  that  all  chicks  get 
sufficient  exposure  to  sunlight.  Feeding  mash  containing  1  quart  of 
cod-liver  oil  to  each  100  pounds  to  an  affected  flock  will  quickly  stop 
the  occurrence  of  leg  weakness.  Feeding  such  a  mixture  throughout 
the  brooding  season  will  entirely  prevent  the  trouble. 

BLACKHEAD   IN  TURKEYS 

Description. — Blackhead  has  long  been  known  to  occur  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  is  undoubtedly  responsible  for  severe  losses.  Observations 
made  in  some  sections  indicate  that  the  disease  has  not  been  prevalent 
to  any  great  extent  in  flocks  that  are  run  on  well  drained  unirrigated 
ranges  and  grain  fields.  It  is  believed  that  blackhead  as  a  serious 
disease  will  be  found  to  be  localized  to  a  considerable  degree  in  those 
sections  where  the  land  is  low,  wet  or  under  irrigation,  or  on  land 
on  which  chickens  or  turkeys  are  raised  in  confinement  year  after 
year. 

There  are  two  factors  involved  in  the  production  of  the  disease, 
one  the  blackhead  parasite,  a  microscopic  organism  which  enters  the 
tissues  and  produces  the  characteristic  changes,  and  the  other  the 
cecum  worm  (see  p.  60)  which  presumably  opens  up  a  way  for  the 
blackhead  parasite  to  enter.  It  is  possible  that  there  are  other  factors 
that  may  take  the  place  of  the  cecum  worm  in  the  production  of  black- 
head, but  none  have  been  found.  Turkeys  become  infected  when  they 
are  run  on  soil  contaminated  with  the  blackhead  parasites  and  the 
cecum  worm  eggs. 


1927]  DISEASES   AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA  41 


r 


V<A^ 


Fig.  28. — Ceca  of  a  turkey  affected  with  blackhead.  One  cecum  shows  a 
discolored  diseased  area  near  the  tip  and  two  near  the  middle.  The  other  shows 
only  one  located  below  the  middle. 


42  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClRC.  8 

The  name  blackhead  is  an  unfortunate  one.  The  head  of  the 
affected  bird  never  turns  black  but  in  a  certain  proportion  of  the 
cases  takes  on  a  somewhat  bluish  color.  This  condition  occurs  in  other 
diseases  and  is  related  to  a  disturbance  of  the  circulation.  A  period 
of  about  two  weeks  elapses  between  the  beginning  of  the  disease  and 
the  time  the  affected  bird  shows  symptoms.  Birds,  especially  those 
but  a  few  weeks  old,  may  die  so  suddenly  that  no  symptoms  of  illness 
have  been  noticed,  but  this  is  rather  exceptional.  The  disease  is  most 
serious  in  birds  during  the  first  months  of  life.  As  already  indicated 
resistance  increases  with  age,  especially  after  the  first  two  or  three 
months.  In  older  birds,  the  disease  is  more  chronic  and  the  affected 
bird  may  be  ill  for  some  weeks  before  it  succumbs  or  recovers. 

The  first  change  noticed  in  a  bird  affected  with  blackhead  is  that 
it  is  a  trifle  slower  in  its  movements  and  does  not  feed  so  ambitiously. 
Later  its  movements  are  much  slower  and  it  is  found  at  times  standing 
with  the  head  drawn  in.  As  the  disease  progresses  it  stands  for  long 
intervals  or  almost  continuously  with  head  drawn  in,  eyes  closed,  and 
the  tail  and  wings  drooping.  It  may  bury  its  head  in  the  feathers 
of  the  back.  There  may  be  a  diarrhea.  The  droppings  are  stained  a 
sulfur  color.  Affected  birds  sometimes  prefer  sitting  on  the  ground 
to  standing. 

There  is  nothing  sufficiently  characteristic  about  the  symptoms  to 
make  it  possible  to  distinguish  blackhead  from  certain  other  diseases. 
A  definite  diagnosis  can  be  made  only  by  an  examination  of  the  organs 
of  birds  at  autopsy. 

The  main  changes  in  the  organs  in  blackhead  are  confined  to  the 
ceca,  or  blind  pouches  of  the  intestines,  and  the  liver.  The  disease 
of  blackhead  originates  in  the  ceca,  one  or  both  being  affected  (fig.  28). 
The  blackhead  parasite  gains  entrance  to  the  inner  lining  (mucosa), 
where  it  multiplies  very  rapidly.  It  extends  its  invasion  well  into 
the  depths  of  the  wall  of  the  cecum,  causing  it  to  become  thickened. 
The  thickening  may  be  general  or  localized  to  one  or  more  areas.  As 
a  result  of  injury  to  the  tissues  and  a  weakening  of  the  blood  vessels, 
blood  and  fluids  may  escape  into  the  cavity  of  the  cecum  and  there, 
becoming  more  or  less  mixed  with  the  contents,  undergo  solidification 
into  a  cheesy  core.  A  core,  however,  is  not  always  present.  Enlarge- 
ment of  the  cecum,  a  thickened  wall  and  the  possible  presence  of  a 
yellowish  cheesy  core  are  the  gross  changes  to  be  noted  in  this  organ. 

From  the  cecum  the  organism  is  carried  by  the  blood  stream  to 
the  liver,  where  it  sets  up  a  serious  disturbance.  The  liver  is  much 
enlarged  and  permeated  with  dark  red,  grayish  or  yellowish  spots 


1927] 


DISEASES   AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA 


43 


where  the  blackhead  parasite  has  lodged  and  multiplied  (fig.  29).  At 
times  instead  of  the  changes  occurring  as  spots,  they  give  a  cloudy 
appearance  to  considerable  areas  of  the  liver. 

Prevention  and  Control. — Blackhead  can  be  prevented  by  rearing 
young  turkeys  away  from  old  ones  and  all  other  domestic  birds  and 
on  soil  free  from  the  eggs  of  the  cecum  worm.     Soil  not  previously 


■* 


Fig.  29. — Liver  of  turkey  affected  with  blackhead. 


used  for  domestic  birds,  and  that  which  has  been  ploughed  and  been 
under  cultivation  for  a  year  during  which  time  all  domestic  birds 
have  been  excluded  may  be  regarded  as  safe.  Wide  areas,  such  as 
ranges  and  grain  fields,  may  likewise  be  regarded  as  safe  because, 
under  such  conditions,  soil  contamination  does  not  tend  to  become 
great. 


44  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClRC.  8 

It  is  preferable  to  hatch  in  incubators  and  rear  in  brooders  on 
clean  ground.  When  hens  are  used  for  these  purposes  hatching  and 
brooding  should  be  done  in  different  locations  and  clean  ground  for 
brooding  should  be  provided  each  season.  It  is  wise  to  plan  a  year 
in  advance  for  brooding  ground.  As  soon  as  practicable  the  hens 
with  their  broods  should  be  given  their  freedom  on  clean  ground. 
The  best  chance  for  success  is  where  large  areas  are  available,  for 
there  soil  contamination  is  least  likely  to  become  serious.  However,  a 
failure  to  apply  the  principles  underlying  control  may  result  in  prac- 
tices neutralizing  the  natural  advantages  of  ranges  and  fields  and 
bring  about  serious  and  unnecessary  losses.  Soil  tends  to  become 
dangerous  in  places  where  turkeys  congregate  repeatedly.  In  the  case 
of  large  bands,  the  flock  should  be  kept  on  the  move  and  feeding  and 
roosting  places  changed  frequently  to  keep  the  flock  on  soil  as  little 
contaminated  as  possible.  When  clean  ground  is  not  used,  treatment 
of  the  flock  to  prevent  infestation  with  cecum  worms  may  assist  in 
preventing  blackhead.  While  there  is  no  treatment  that  can  be  relied 
upon  to  keep  the  birds  free  from  cecum  worms,  the  continuous  feeding 
of  dry  mash  to  which  2  per  cent  of  tobacco  dust  is  added  may  be  of 
considerable  value. 

A  great  number  of  drugs  and  substances  have  been  recommended 
by  investigators  and  laymen  for  the  prevention  and  cure  of  blackhead. 
None  of  these  has  been  proved  to  be  of  value.  As  in  the  case  of  most 
other  infectious  diseases  of  animals,  prevention  based  on  sanitation  is 
more  reliable  than  curative  measures.  The  best  that  can  be  done  for 
diseased  birds  is  to  isolate  them,  give  them  good  care,  and  feed  prop- 
erly— providing  sour  milk  if  possible.  The  results  may  be  far  from 
satisfying  but  they  will  be  quite  as  much  so  as  with  any  medicinal 
treatment  and  there  will  be  no  expense  for  drugs.  To  try,  one  after 
another,  various  drugs  and  substances  recommended  to  the  turkey 
raiser  is  productive  of  much  harm.  Some  of  the  substances  used  are 
poisonous  or  irritating  to  the  intestinal  tract  and  other  organs.  The 
drinking  water  is  frequently  rendered  distasteful  by  the  addition  of 
medicines  which  prevents  the  birds  from  taking  a  proper  amount  of 
water. 

After  the  sick  birds  have  been  taken  out,  the  flock  should  be  moved 
to  clean  ground  and  carefully  watched  so  that  new  cases  can  be 
promptly  detected  and  removed.  Treating  the  flock  for  cecum  worms 
may  also  assist  in  preventing  further  spread  of  the  disease  through 
the  flock. 


1927] 


DISEASES   AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA 


45 


COMMON    DISEASES    OF    BIRDS 

"   or  non-infectious   diseases   of  birds   are   of  an 


Most  "common 
intestinal  origin,  that  is,  due  primarily  to  indigestion. 


Therefore, 


many  birds  that  become  droopy  and  which  would  die  if  left  alone  may 


Fif.  30. — A  safe  method  of  administering  castor  oil  or  other  liquid 
medicine  to  a  fowl. 

recover  if  treated  properly.  All  droopy  birds  should  be  removed  from 
a  flock  and  given  one-half  or  one  ounce  of  castor  oil.  Castor  oil  or 
other  liquids  can  be  safely  given  through  a  rubber  tube  attached  to 


46  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClRC.  8 

the  nozzle  of  a  hard-rubber  veterinary  dose  syringe  of  a  suitable 
capacity  and  passed  down  the  throat  into  the  crop  (fig.  30).  If  the 
practice  of  giving  castor  oil  to  all  droopy  birds  is  followed,  the 
mortality  can  be  greatly  decreased.  Furthermore  the  practice  of 
always  removing  sick  birds  from  the  flock,  no  matter  what  the  cause 
of  the  sickness,  will  be  a  great  assistance  in  preventing  any  infectious 
disease  from  gaining  a  foothold  in  the  flock. 

When  intestinal  disturbance  becomes  prevalent  in  a  flock  give 
epsom  salts  to  the  whole  flock  by  dissolving  1  pound  for  each  100  to 
125  adult  birds  in  as  much  water  as  will  be  consumed  in  three  or  four 
hours.  For  younger  birds  decrease  the  amount  of  the  salts  according 
to  the  age  of  the  birds.  Such  trouble  is  usually  the  result  of  incorrect 
methods  of  feeding.  Advice  regarding  proper  rations  for  poultry 
should  be  obtained  and  any  errors  found  in  the  feeding  practices  in 
use  should  be  corrected. 

LICE 

These  insects  can  be  distinguished  from  all  other  parasites  on  the 
body  by  the  fact  that  they  have  three  pairs  of  legs  and  their  bodies, 
divided  into  three  sections,  the  head,  thorax,  and  abdomen,  are  flat- 
tened dorso-ventrally,  i.e.,  as  if  a  flattening  force  had  been  applied 
on  their  backs.  They  are  seldom  over  %6  of  an  inch  in  length  and  of 
a  yellow  or  grayish  color,  sometimes  ornamented  with  dark  stripes  but 
never  uniformly  dark  brown  or  red.  Parasites  of  these  latter  colors 
may  be  fleas,  mites,  or  ticks. 

The  entire  life  of  lice,  including  the  egg  stage,  is  spent  on  the 
body  of  the  birds.  It  is  only  by  accident  that  the  parasites  leave  their 
hosts  except  to  migrate  to  other  hosts  of  the  same  species.  The  eggs 
require  about  a  week  to  hatch,  after  which  maturity  is  reached  in 
about  two  weeks. 

None  of  the  present-day  remedies  are  harmful  to  the  egg  stage. 
This  necessitates  the  use  of  a  substance  that  will  remain  on  the  body 
long  enough  to  kill  the  emerging  young,  or  a  repetition  of  the  treat- 
ment between  8  and  14  days  after  the  first  treatment. 

Sodium  fluoride  is  the  only  remedy  that  answers  the  first  require- 
ment of  eliminating  all  the  lice  with  a  single  treatment.  It  also  has 
the  advantages  (1)  of  being  safe  to  both  birds  and  operator,  (2)  of 
accomplishing  a  complete  elimination  of  the  lice,  and  (3)  of  being 
suitable  for  baby  chicks  and  setting  hens.  No  other  treatment  com- 
bines these  advantages,  for  which  reason  we  restrict  our  recommenda- 
tions to  this  single  type  of  remedy. 


1927] 


DISEASES   AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA 


47 


Sodium  fluoride  may  be  obtained  from  drug  stores  as  a  white 
powder  (commercial  form)  or  as  crystals  (chemically  pure).  It  may 
be  applied  in  three  ways,  viz.,  by  the  "pinch  method,"  dusting,  and 
dipping. 

The  "pinch  method"  consists  of  placing  on  the  skin  of  each  fowl 
approximately  ten  "pinches"  (amount  held  between  thumb  and  fore 
finger)  of  the  commercial  sodium  fluoride,  distributed  on  the  breast, 
each  thigh,  below  the  vent,  on  each  side  of  the  back,  on  the  neck,  on 
the  head,  and  finally  one  sprinkled  on  the  underside  of  each  outspread 
wing.  The  birds,  when  treated,  should  be  held  over  a  shallow  pan  or 
newspaper  in  order  that  the  excess  of  the  chemical  may  be  saved. 


Fig.  31. — Three  common  species  of  poultry  lice. 


The  powdered  sodium  fluoride  is  sometimes  mixed  with  three  or 
four  times  its  bulk  of  flour  or  talc  and  applied  with  a  large  shaker, 
ruffling  the  feathers  of  the  bird  as  the  chemical  is  applied.  This  pro- 
cedure is  not  as  economical  of  material  or  as  efficient  as  the  pinch 
method  and  the  excess  of  chemical  in  the  air  is  irritating  to  birds  and 
operators. 

Dipping  in  sodium-fluoride  solution  is  rapidly  becoming  a  standard 
method  of  treatment  among  a  large  group  of  producers  that  have 
overcome  the  poultrymen's  prejudice  against  wetting  their  birds.  In 
California,  birds  may  be  dipped  safely  in  almost  every  month  of  the 
year  by  choosing  a  warm  day  with  little  wind  and  completing  the 
operations  an  hour  or  two  before  sundown  in  order  that  the  fowls 
may  dry  thoroughly  before  roosting  for  the  night.  The  solution 
should  be  prepared  in  a  wooden  container,  avoiding  contact  with  gal- 
vanized iron.  The  ordinary  wooden  wash  tub  is  excellent  for  this 
purpose.  One  ounce  of  the  commercial  sodium  fluoride,  or  two-thirds 
of  an  ounce  of  the  chemically  pure  crystals,  should  be  dissolved  in 


48  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClRC.  8 

each  gallon  of  tepid  water.  The  best  method  for  dipping  the  birds  is 
to  hold  them  with  the  left  hand  by  both  wings.  They  are  then  placed 
feet  foremost  in  the  warm  dip  and  submerged  until  only  the  head 
remains  above  the  surface.  They  should  be  held  in  this  position  from 
20  to  25  seconds  while  the  feathers  are  ruffled  to  permit  penetration 
of  the  liquid.  Just  before  removal,  the  head  should  be  ducked  under 
the  surface.  The  birds  should  be  held  above  the  dip  for  two  or  three 
seconds  to  allow  them  to  drip  before  releasing  them.  One  hundred 
birds  will  use  up  approximately  five  gallons  of  dip,  on  which  basis 
material  should  be  available  at  the  start  of  operations  to  keep  the  dip 
replenished. 

The  dipping  method  kills  all  lice  immediately  but  where  it  is 
applied  as  a  powder  three  or  four  days  will  pass  before  elimination  is 
complete.  If  the  birds  are  caught  and  handed  to  the  operator,  from 
100  to  125  birds  an  hour  can  be  treated  by  dipping  or  dusting,  and 
approximately  60  to  75  an  hour  by  the  "pinch"  method. 

Prevention  is  accomplished  to  some  extent  by  supplying  the  birds 
with  ample  dusting  boxes  filled  with  fine  road  dust  to  which  sodium 
fluosilicate  has  been  added  at  the  rate  of  one  part  of  the  chemical  to 
three  parts  of  dust.  The  best  advice,  however,  is  to  treat  all  new 
acquisitions  to  the  flock  before  permitting  them  to  mix  with  the  clean 
birds.  Brooding  hens,  unless  definitely  known  to  be  free  from  lice, 
should  be  treated  before  being  placed  with  newly  hatched  chicks. 
Spraying  the  house  and  roosts  has  little  effect  on  the  lice  problem. 

MITES 

Two  distinct  groups  of  mites  attack  poultry.  One  group  is  migra- 
tory, passing  the  greater  portion  of  its  life,  not  on  the  birds,  but  in 
cracks  and  crevices  about  the  poultry  houses  from  which  they  make 
nightly  raids  upon  the  roosting  poultry  to  suck  blood.  The  other 
group  passes  its  entire  life  history  on  the  birds  by  burrowing  beneath 
the  scales  of  the  legs,  into  the  skin  at  the  base  of  the  feathers,  into 
the  shaft  of  the  feathers  themselves,  or  even  penetrating  the  internal 
air  sacs. 

The  scaly  leg  mite  (Cnemidocoptes  mutans)  gets  its  name  from  its 
habit  of  burrowing  beneath  the  scales  of  the  leg,  where  its  presence 
and  activities  cause  a  lifting  of  the  scales  and  a  swollen  condition  of 
the  shank  which,  in  advanced  cases,  amounts  to  so  pronounced  a  dis- 
tortion and  deformity  that  the  affected  birds  are  unable  to  walk.  The 
mites  themselves  are  microscopic  and  the  poultryman  generally  makes 
a  diagnosis  of  the  trouble  by  observing  the  symptoms  noted  above. 
The  trouble  is  pronounced  in  older  birds. 


192?]  DISEASES   AND   PARASITES  OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA  49 

Treatment  consists  of  dipping  the  legs  of  the  birds  in  a  mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  crude  oil  and  raw  linseed  oil,  taking  precautions  to 
avoid  wetting  the  legs  above  the  scaly  portion.  This  treatment  should 
be  repeated  in  about  three  weeks  unless  marked  improvement  is  noted. 
This  is,  however,  seldom  necessary. 

The  legs  of  newly  acquired  birds  should  be  observed  carefully  in 
order  that  infected  birds  may  be  segregated  and  treated  before  being 
placed  with  the  clean  flock. 


Fig.  32. — Photomicrograph  of  the  scaly  leg  mite. 

The  depluming  mite  (Cnemidocoptes  laevis)  is  a  microscopic  para- 
site which  burrows  into  the  skin  at  the  base  of  the  feathers,  producing 
an  intense  itching  which  causes  the  birds  to  pluck  out  the  feathers, 
leaving  nude  areas  at  the  more  severely  infested  places.  No  general 
treatment  is  available,  but  individual  birds  may  be  cured  by  the 
thorough  application  at  intervals  of  about  five  days,  of  a  sulfur 
ointment  made  by  mixing  three  parts  of  flowers  of  sulfur  with  one 
part  of  lard. 


50  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClRC.  8 

The  common  chicken  mite  (Dermanyssus  gallinae)  is  a  small  gray- 
ish red  mite,  approximately  the  size  of  a  pinhead  when  filled  with 
blood.  It  may  be  distinguished  from  the  insect  parasites  by  its  four 
pairs  of  legs,  in  place  of  the  insects'  three,  and  by  the  fact  that  its 
body  is  not  divided  into  separate  subdivisions.  Its  food  is  blood  which 
it  draws  from  the  birds  by  means  of  long  piercing  stylet-like  mouth- 
parts.  Unlike  the  other  mites  mentioned  above,  it  hides  away  during 
the  day  in  cracks  and  crevices  about  the  hen  house,  migrating  to  the 
roosting  birds  at  night  to  suck  blood.  The  experienced  poultryman 
is  warned  of  their  presence  by  the  "salt  and  pepper"  marks  on  the 
roosts,  tiny  circular  black  and  white  dots  slightly  smaller  than  "fly 
specks"  caused  by  the  excrement  of  the  mites.  However,  if  present, 
even  a  cursory  examination  of  a  few  cracks  or  crevices  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  roosts  will  reveal  myriads  of  these  mites. 

Inasmuch  as  the  mites  are  seldom  found  on  the  bodies  of  the  birds 
during  the  day,  except  in  the  first  feeding  period  when  they  sometimes 
remain  attached  for  a  night  and  a  day,  or  in  dark  nest  boxes,  control 
measures  are  directed  most  advantageously  against  the  hiding  places. 
A  thorough  clean-up  of  the  premises  to  which  the  birds  have  access, 
together  with  the  elimination  of  every  useless  article  therein,  such  as 
boxes,  coops,  boards,  etc.,  is  the  first  step.  Old  nesting  material  should 
be  burned  and  if  the  infestation  is  severe,  roosts  and  nests  should  be 
dismantled  to  be  replaced  by  construction  that  will  facilitate  future 
clean-ups.  Methods  must  now  be  directed  against  the  cracks  and 
crevices  of  the  floors,  walls,  and  even  the  roof  of  the  poultry  house. 
In  heavy  infestations  the  mites  sometimes  migrate  to  the  outside  of 
the  house  when  the  inside  is  sprayed.  They  should  be  looked  for 
along  the  cracks  on  the  outside  and,  if  present  there,  a  spraying  of 
the  outside  will  be  decidedly  worth  while.  The  most  efficient  manner 
of  accomplishing  this  end  is  by  the  use  of  liquid  insecticides  applied 
preferably  by  "bucket"  or  "knapsack"  spray  pumps.  A  coarse 
spray  is  most  effective  and  should  be  applied  to  each  area  from  several 
different  angles  to  insure  penetration  into  all  hiding  places.  Many 
of  the  existing  sprays  are  efficient.  Any  of  the  dips  used  on  domesti- 
cated animals  made  up  in  a  slightly  stronger  solution  than  directed 
for  the  dipping  of  domesticated  animals  will  give  fairly  satisfactory 
results.  The  most  satisfactory  of  all  applications,  however,  are  the 
wood  preservers  similar  to  "Carbolineum"  that  have  the  coal-tar 
product  anthracene  oil  as  a  base.  These  have  the  advantage  of  being 
effective  over  a  long  period  and  of  soaking  into  the  wood  rapidly 
without  leaving  a  greasy  residue  to  soil  the  feet,  feathers  and  eggs  of 
the  birds.     They  should  be  diluted  about  one-half  with  kerosene  to 


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DISEASES  AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA 


51 


facilitate  spraying.  One  careful,  thorough  treatment  generally  proves 
sufficient  with  this  type  of  spray. 

Crude  oil  diluted  sufficiently  with  kerosene  to  make  it  easily 
sprayed  is  efficient  in  killing  the  mites  and  is  sufficiently  durable  but 
leaves  the  roosts,  floors,  etc.,  in  an  oily  condition  so  that  the  flock  must 
be  excluded  from  the  treated  premises  for  some  time  in  order  to  avoid 
soiling  of  feathers  and  eggs. 

Whitewash  containing  3  to  5  per  cent  of  crude  carbolic  acid  kills 
large  numbers  of  mites  but  is  not  nearly  as  effective  as  anthracene  oil 
or  crude  oil. 


Fig.  33. — The  common  poultry  mite  greatly  enlarged. 


The  common  chicken  mite  is  introduced  into  clean  flocks  in  many 
cases  in  contaminated  shipping  coops.  In  some  cases  the  introduction 
may  be  accomplished  by  a  few  young  mites  that  are  engorging  for  the 
first  time  on  the  introduced  fowls.  To  overcome  this  possibility,  newly 
acquired  birds  should  be  kept  in  special  coops  for  two  or  three  days 
before  being  placed  in  clean  houses.  These  coops  should  then  be 
destroyed  or  disinfected  with  boiling  water  or  with  one  of  the  sprays 
suggested  above.  Shipping  coops  from  other  poultry  plants  should 
not  be  left  in  or  near  clean  houses,  nor  should  second-hand  equipment 
be  introduced  unless  the  proper  precautions  of  disinfection  are  taken. 
Mites  will  live  for  from  three  to  five  months  without  food,  a  fact  which 
should  be  considered  when  vacant  buildings  are  to  be  occupied  by 
clean  flocks.  In  cases  where  the  control  of  the  mite  is  impossible 
OAving  to  the  character  of  the  quarters  or  lack  of  them,  some  relief  is 
afforded  by  wrapping  the  ends  and  other  points  of  contact  of  the 


52  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClRC.  8 

roosts  which  have  been  painted  thoroughly  with  crude  oil,  with  rags 
soaked  in  the  same  substance  to  prevent  the  mites  from  gaining 
access  to  the  fowls  after  they  have  roosted.  To  make  this  procedure 
effective  crowding  should  be  discouraged  and  the  back  roosts  should 
not  be  near  enough  to  the  wall  to  permit  the  movement  of  the  mites 
to  the  plumage  of  the  birds. 

The  air  sac  mite  (Cytodites  nudus)  is  seldom  of  economic  impor- 
tance but  constitutes  a  source  of  wonder  to  poultrymen  on  account 
of  its  habitat  in  the  air  passages  of  the  birds,  particularly  in  the  air 
sacs  where  they  can  be  seen  as  small  yellow  spots  of  very  minute  size. 
No  extreme  cases  have  ever  been  noted  by  the  writers  but  some  authors 
have  attributed  clinical  symptoms  similar  to  tuberculosis  or  "going 
light"  to  heavy  infestations. 

The  quill  mite  (Picobia  biped mat us)  has  been  taken  in  California. 
It  lives  in  the  shafts  of  the  primary  wing  feathers.  It  is  apparently 
of  no  economic  importance. 

TICKS 

These  parasites  are  closely  related  to  the  mites  but  are  always 
larger,  easily  visible  to  the  naked  eye  and  have  a  thick  leathery  cuticula 
or  skin.  The  only  tick  attacking  fowls  that  is  of  economic  importance 
is  the  so-called  fowl  tick  or  "blue  bug"  (Argus  persicus).  The  adult 
tick  is  flat,  egg-shaped  in  outline,  dark  brown  in  color,  from  %  to  %6 
of  an  inch  in  length  and  about  half  as  wide  at  its  widest  part.  Its 
habits  are  essentially  like  those  of  the  common  chicken  mite  referred 
to  above.  The  ticks  have  a  remarkable  ability  to  live  for  long  periods 
without  food,  the  specimen  photographed  in  figure  34  having  lived 
in  a  tightly  corked  vial  in  the  author's  desk  for  a  period  of  16  months 
without  food.  Records  are  available  of  adult  ticks  that  have  fasted 
for  2%  years. 

The  procedure  is  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  the  common  chicken 
mite,  with  the  exception  that  the  spray  material  should  be  stronger 
in  every  case  when  the  dilution  is  made  with  water.  The  wood  pre- 
servers of  anthracene  oil  stand  out  as  the  most  promising  materials 
but  treatment  with  these  often  has  to  be  repeated  at  the  end  of  three 
or  four  weeks  to  insure  entire  control.  If  sheep  dip  or  other  stock 
dips  are  used  their  dilution  should  be  at  least  as  strong  as  four  parts 
of  water  to  one  of  dip.  When  individual  fowls  are  heavily  infested 
with  larvae  taking  their  first  meal,  when  they  remain  attached  for 
several  days,  it  is  advisable  to  dip  them  in  a  2  per  cent  coal-tar  dip 
in  case  the  birds  show  signs  of  weakness.  The  best  practice,  however, 
is  to  merely  segregate  the  infested  birds  for  a  few  days  in  an  isolated 


1927] 


DISEASES  AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA 


53 


coop  until  the  ticks  become  engorged  and  drop  off  when  the  birds  may 
be  returned  to  the  flock  and  the  coop  destroyed  or  disinfected  with 
boiling  water  or  some  of  the  sprays  mentioned  above. 

The  procedure  here  is  also  much  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  the 
common  mite  mentioned  before.  The  period  of  quarantine  mentioned 
for  the  previous  mite  must,  however,  be  lengthened  to  five  or  six  days 
in  the  case  of  the  poultry  tick,  but  may  be  eliminated  entirely  from 
the  standpoint  of  tick  prevention  by  a  careful  examination  of  the 


Fig.  34. — Ventral  and  dorsal  view  of  the  poultry  tick  or  blue  bug  enlarged. 

thighs,  breast  and  sides  for  the  round  bluish-red  larval  ticks  that  can 
be  easily  seen  on  account  of  the  contrasting  color  of  their  bodies  and 
the  skin  of  the  birds. 

FLEAS 

These  insects  may  be  distinguished  by  their  dark  brown  color,  three 
pairs  of  legs,  and  their  laterally  flattened  condition. 

The  sticktight  flea  (Echidnophaga  gallinaceae) ,  although  parasitic 
on  dogs  and  cats,  finds  its  best  host  in  poultry.  This  flea  remains 
attached  to  the  host  throughout  its  adult  life.  In  poultry  they  are 
generally  located  about  the  eyes  and  comb.  The  eggs  laid  by  these 
attached  females  fall  to  the  ground  and  hatch,  or  in  case  the  eggs  are 
retained  in  the  burrows  or  ulcers  caused  by  the  attached  females,  the 
larvae  upon  hatching  fall  to  the  ground.  These  larvae  are  tiny  white, 
caterpillar-like  organisms  with  chewing  mouthparts.  They  subsist 
on  the  debris  or  manure  on  the  floors  of  houses  and  yards.  When  they 
have  become  full-grown  as  larvae  they  spin  a  white  cocoon  in  which 


54  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClRC.  8 

they  change  from  the  larval  stage  to  that  of  an  adult,  after  which 
they  attach  themselves  to  the  skin  of  their  hosts  to  suck  blood.  The 
constant  irritation,  particularly  in  spots  where  they  are  present  in 
large  numbers,  together  with  a  slight  burrowing  activity  on  the  part 
of  the  fleas,  causes  the  formation  of  ulcers  so  extensive  at  times  that 
blindness  and  subsequent  death  is  produced. 

The  first  step  in  control  is  to  prevent  further  infestation.  This 
can  be  accomplished  by  a  rigid  clean-up  of  the  floors  of  the  houses  and 
the  pens,  followed  by  a  thorough  spraying  with  kerosene,  crude  oil 
or  kerosene  emulsion.  Nest  boxes  and  dropping  boards  should  receive 
similar  treatment.  Flooding  the  yards  with  irrigation  water  is  said 
to  produce  beneficial  results.  Infested  birds  may  be  relieved  by 
dipping  in  a  2  per  cent  Creolin  solution. 

The  dog  flea  (Ctenocephalus  cams),  the  human  flea  (Pidex  irri- 
tans),  and  the  rat  flea  (Ceratophyllus  fasciatus)  are  frequent  inhab- 
itants of  poultry  houses.  These  fleas  attach  themselves  to  their  hosts 
only  momentarily  at  the  time  that  they  suck  blood,  remaining  un- 
attached on  the  host's  body  or  leaving  it  entirely  between  meals.  The 
habits  are  otherwise  like  those  of  the  " stick  tight"  mentioned  above. 
The  control  is  also  similar.  One  precaution  that  applies  equally 
well  to  the  sticktight  flea  is  to  "turn  under"  all  manure  and  other 
scrapings  from  the  poultry  houses  and  yards  that  is  to  be  used  for 
fertilizing  purposes.  The  mere  storing  of  the  manure  outside  the 
house  in  piles  or  spreading  it  on  the  fields  will  not  prevent  the  develop- 
ment of  the  flea  larvae ;  and  although  it  will  prevent  them  from  gain- 
ing access  to  confined  fowls,  the  cats,  dogs  and  men  of  the  neighbor- 
hood will  be  the  alternative  recipients  of  their  attentions  unless  the 
manure  is  carefully  turned  under  by  plowing  or  spading.  The  bot- 
toms of  nest  boxes  should  be  frequently  and  liberally  sprinkled  with 
tobacco  dust  or  pyrethrum  powder. 

FLIES 

The  common  house  fly  (Musca  domestica)  lays  its  eggs  on  freshly 
deposited  manure.  These  hatch  in  about  two  days  into  tiny  glisten- 
ing white,  footless  maggots  that  grow  rapidly  for  approximately  a 
week  until  about  a  half  inch  in  length,  when  they  migrate  from  the 
moister  part  of  the  manure  to  a  drier  portion;  here  they  turn  into 
brown,  barrel-shaped  ' '  pupae, ' '  from  which  they  emerge  as  full  grown 
flies  in  about  four  days. 

The  blow  flies,  flesh  flies,  buzz  flies  or  meat  flies,  as  they  are  vari- 
ously called,  will  also  breed  in  chicken  manure,  but  prefer  the  bodies 
of  dead  birds  left  exposed  on  the  ground  or  buried  in  shallow  holes. 


1927 ]  DISEASES  AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA  55 

When  garbage  is  fed,  unless  extra  precautions  are  taken,  fly  breed- 
ing will  occur  in  the  garbage  itself  and  even  in  moist  soil  that  has 
become  saturated  with  nitrogenous  material. 

Removal  of  the  manure  from  the  poultry  houses  and  yards  at 
intervals  of  less  than  seven  days  is  the  first  essential.  Its  disposal 
may  be  accomplished  in  several  ways.  In  truck  and  fruit  regions 
it  has  a  very  definite  cash  value  if  protected  from  the  rain  and  if  the 
" droppings" — scrapings  from  the  dropping  board,  and  the  "sweep- 
ings"— material  from  floors  and  yards,  are  segregated  in  fly-tight 
bins  and  collected  at  frequent  intervals.  Many  producers  accomplish 
the  same  result  by  spreading  the  manure  daily  on  plots  to  be  fertilized 
in  a  thin  layer  that  will  rapidly  dry  out.  The  fly  larvae  will  be 
destroyed  by  the  drying  but  it  should  be  plowed  under  about  once 
a  week  to  avoid  the  emergence  of  fleas. 

The  maggot  trap  is  another  very  effective  method  of  fly  control 
where  poultry  manure  is  concerned.  This  consists  of  a  concrete  pan 
about  9'  X  12'  X  6"  deep  with  walls  4"  thick.  This  is  kept  filled  with 
water  to  which  a  film  of  oil  is  added.  A  table  with  legs  a  foot  and 
a  half  high  and  slightly  smaller  in  area  than  that  of  the  pan  is  placed 
in  the  pan.  The  top  of  the  table  is  made  of  inch  square  pieces  spaced 
their  own  width  apart,  leaving  a  latticed  appearance,  and  covered  with 
straw  to  prevent  the  manure  from  falling  through.  The  manure  is 
then  placed  on  this  table  or  rack  and  moistened  enough  to  make  it 
thoroughly  wet  but  not  dripping.  Each  addition  is  treated  in  the 
same  way,  the  whole  deposit  being  kept  wet  at  all  times.  The  fly 
larvae  flourish  under  this  treatment  but  when  ready  to  pupate  their 
search  for  a  dry  place  ends  invariably  in  a  fall  to  the  oil-filmed  water 
in  the  pan  below.  If  the  mass  of  manure  is  kept  wet,  this  method 
will  return  a  hundred  per  cent  efficiency. 

Dead  fowls  should  be  disposed  of  through  the  garbage  collection 
system  in  cities  or  towns,  but  in  the  rural  districts,  incineration  is  just 
as  effective.  If  it  is  necessary  to  bury  dead  animals,  a  hole  at  least  a 
foot  and  a  half  deep  should  be  prepared,  the  body  covered  with  crude 
oil  and  the  ground  above  well  tamped. 

TAPEWORMS 

The  effect  of  an  infestation  of  tapeworms  in  poultry  is  so  insidious 
that  the  cause  is  often  either  not  suspected  or  entirely  overlooked. 
These  worms,  inhabitants  of  the  intestines,  when  full  grown,  range 
from  almost  microscopic  size  to  ten  inches,  depending  on  the  species. 
They  have  a  ' '  head ' '  or  scolex  by  which  they  attach  themselves  to  the 


56  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClRC-  8 

walls  of  the  intestine.  Behind  this  is  a  series  of  segments  which 
have  their  origin  just  behind  the  scolex  at  the  "neck."  As  these 
segments  grow  older  and  new  ones  are  formed  at  the  "head"  end, 
they  move  away  from  this  end  and  finally,  when  mature,  i.e.,  when 
full  of  "eggs,"  slough  off  and  pass  from  the  body  of  the  host  with  its 
feces.  If  these  "eggs"  are  eaten  by  some  other  animal  which  acts  as 
an  intermediary  host,  the  young  tapeworm  develops  up  to  a  certain 
stage  in  its  body,  where  it  remains  dormant  until  the  host  is  eaten  by 
poultry,  when  the  larval  tapeworm  again  becomes  active,  further 
development  takes  place  and  the  worm  becomes  mature,  sloughing 
off  more  segments  of  mature  ' '  eggs. ' ' 


Fig.  35. — Inside  of  a  lien's  intestine,  showing  attached  tape  worms,  2  X.  (At 
post  mortem  examination,  the  worms  appear  much  longer  and  more  transparent, 
but  contract  and  become  whiter  at  death.) 

The  common  poultry  tapeworm  (Choanotaenia  infundibuliformis) 
is,  as  its  name  implies,  our  commonest  tapeworm.  Investigations  at 
the  Oklahoma  Experiment  Station  have  demonstrated  apparently  that 
the  larvae  of  houseflies  feeding  in  poultry  manure  become  the  inter- 
mediary hosts.  Chickens  become  infested  by  eating  these  larvae  or 
the  adult  flies  that  they  become. 

One  of  the  most  serious  tapeworms  of  poultry,  the  spiny  suckered 
tapeworm  (Davainea  echinoboihrida),  has  recently  been  taken  in 
California.  When  infestations  with  this  parasite  occur,  nodules  vary- 
ing from  pin  points  to  the  size  of  a  pea  appear  on  the  outside  of  the 
intestines  causing  a  condition  known  as  nodular  taeniasis.     This  can 


1927J  DISEASES  AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA  57 

be  differentiated  from  tuberculosis  by  the  presence  of  the  tapeworms 
in  the  lumen  of  the  intestine  and  the  fact  that  the  nodules  are  often 
"bunched,"  several  separate  nodules  coalescing  to  form  one  warty 
nodule.    The  larval  host  of  this  tapeworm  is  supposed  to  be  a  snail. 

Several  other  tapeworms,  for  which  stable  flies,  dung  beetles,  and 
slugs  have  been  implicated  as  larval  hosts,  are  reported  from  the 
United  States. 

Where  the  flocks  are  confined  to  yards  and  houses  from  which  the 
manure  with  its  infected  fly  larvae  is  removed  promptly,  and  efficiently 
disposed  of,  and  where  other  intermediary  carriers  are  not  so  apt  to 
occur,  little  trouble  results  from  tapeworms. 

Dr.  Maurice  Hall,  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture, 
has  recently  shown  that  the  administration  of  one  gram  of  kamala 
to  a  bird,  either  as  a  pill  or  in  a  triple  naught  (000)  capsule,  is  an 
exceedingly  efficient  treatment.  Two  grams  are  recommended  for 
turkeys.    No  preliminary  fasting  is  required. 

ROUNDWORMS 

The  name  "roundworm"  is  commonly  applied  to  the  slender 
wire-like  worms  (Ascaridia  lineata)  from  iy2  to  3  inches  long  that  are 
commonly  found  in  the  intestines.  Affected  pullets  are  stunted  in 
growth  and  their  plumage  is  bedraggled  and  soiled.  Older  hens, 
although  seldom  seriously  affected,  have  a  generally  unkempt  appear- 
ance and  their  egg  production  is  below  normal.  The  mature  worms 
in  the  intestine  deposit  eggs  which  pass  out  of  the  body  of  the  birds 
in  the  droppings.  After  a  few  days'  exposure  to  the  air  a  young 
worm  develops  in  the  egg  which,  if  eaten  by  the  bird,  promptly  hatches 
and  soon  becomes  a  mature  worm  in  the  bird's  intestine.  These  eggs 
are  very  resistant  and  will  persist  in  the  ground  in  a  healthy  con- 
dition for  months  and  even  years. 

The  average  poultryman  does  not  need  to  be  convinced  that  the 
intestinal  roundworm  is  a  serious  pest  of  his  flock.  Since  1916,  the 
California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  has  been  interested  in 
the  treatment  of  poultry  for  this  parasite.  Tobacco  infusions  made 
by  steeping  chopped  tobacco  stems  in  water  were  first  recommended 
but  proved  too  toxic  for  the  safety  of  the  birds  and  continued  egg 
production.  Dry  tobacco  dust  was  then  tried  out  at  the  rate  of  2 
per  cent  by  weight  of  the  dry  mash  and  fed  over  a  period  of  3-4  weeks. 
This  was  a  distinct  advance  over  the  old  infusion  method  but  the 
unreliability  of  the  nicotine  content  and  the  fact  that  many  birds 


58 


CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE 


[CIRC.  8 


(some  which  needed  it  most)  refused  to  eat  the  treated  mash,  dis- 
couraged the  use  of  this  material  and  convinced  us  that  an  individual 
treatment  was  the  proper  solution  of  the  problem. 

Nicotine  is  the  most  effective  vermifuge  discovered  thus  far  but 
inasmuch  as  it  is  a  very  strong  poison  its  use  in  strengths  sufficient  to 
eliminate  the  worms  was  fraught  with  danger  to  the  treated  birds 
until  a  safer  manner  of  administration  was  devised  which  would  not 
decrease  egg  production. 


Fig.  36. — Section  of  intestine  showing  roundworms  protruding  from  the  cut  ends. 


In  1923  the  California  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  reported 
concerning  the  mixture  of  nicotine  sulfate  (Black  Leaf  40)  with  a 
special  fuller's  earth  known  as  Lloyd's  Alkaloidal  Reagent.  For  some 
as  yet  unknown  reason  this  particular  clay  has  the  power  of  protect- 
ing the  treated  bird  from  the  toxic  action  of  the  nicotine  and  yet 
liberating  the  alkaloid  (nicotine)  in  sufficient  quantities  to  eliminate 
the  worms.  Most  other  clays  lack  this  property  and  capsules  using 
substitutes  are  decidedly  toxic. 

The  formula  which  has  proved  most  satisfactory  is  made  by  mix- 
ing 6.6  cubic  centimeters  (7.92  grams)  of  Black  Leaf  40  with  16  grams 
of  Lloyd's  Alkaloidal  Reagent.  After  a  thorough  mixing  the  powder 
is  then  packed  in  No.  2  gelatine  capsules  in  sufficient  quantities  to 
weigh,  when  filled,  from  350-400  milligrams. 


1927] 


DISEASES   AND   PARASITES   OF   POULTRY   IN    CALIFORNIA 


59 


The  dosage  is  one  capsule  to  a  bird.  Care  must  be  taken  to  place 
the  capsule  well  down  the  bird's  throat  and  then  with  the  thumb  and 
forefinger  the  capsule  should  be  located  from  the  outside  and  slid 
down  to  the  crop.  Badly  emaciated  birds  are  sometimes  poisoned  by 
this  dosage  but  any  fairly  normal  bird  over  eight  weeks  of  age  will 
not  be  affected  by  the  treatment.  For  badly  emaciated  birds  and 
birds  under  eight  weeks  of  age  from  %  to  %  of  the  powder  should  be 
squeezed  out  of  the  capsule  before  administration.  It  is  not  necessary 
or  even  advisable  to  starve  the  birds  before  treatment.  For  turkeys 
some  growers  have  reported  good  results  from  the  administration  of 
the  same  dosage  recommended  for  hens,  while  others  feel  that  two 
capsules  per  bird  are  necessary. 


Fig.  37. — Highly  magnified  eggs  of  cecum  worm   (left)    and  intestinal  round 
worm   (right),  which  pass  out  in  the  droppings  and  contaminate  the  yards. 


These  capsules  are  now  prepared  by  a  number  of  commercial 
houses  or  may  be  mixed  by  your  local  druggist  on  prescription.  The 
success  of  the  treatment  has  caused  many  unscrupulous  concerns  to 
attempt  to  market  a  substitute  capsule.  If  the  label  bears  a  registry 
number  from  the  California  State  Department  of  Agriculture,  how- 
ever, you  may  be  assured  that  the  capsules  are  satisfactory,  as  that 
office  has  taken  steps  to  test  the  toxicity  as  well  as  the  nicotine  content 
before  a  license  is  issued. 

With  this  type  of  treatment  the  worms  are  eliminated  in  approxi- 
mately forty-eight  hours,  after  which  the  poultryman  should  clean  up 
the  dropping  boards  and  pens  to  prevent  reinfestation  from  worm 


60  CALIFORNIA  AGRICULTURAL  EXTENSION  SERVICE  [ClRC.  8 

eggs  already  prevalent  on  the  premises.  Chemical  sprays  are  useless 
for  this  purpose.  Reliance  should  be  placed  on  a  thorough,  mechanical 
cleaning  of  the  houses;  plowing  is  quite  efficient  for  the  yards.  The 
greatest  single  step  that  can  be  accomplished  in  sanitation  is  to  elim- 
inate "wet  spots"  in  the  yards.  Marked  results  have  followed  the 
installation  of  gravel  pits  covered  with  narrow  cleats  under  all  drink- 
ing fountains.  This  prevents  access  by  the  birds  to  the  usual  wet  soil 
surrounding  the  average  drinking  trough.  Moist  soil  serves  as  an 
incubator  for  the  worm  eggs  deposited  in  the  droppings  of  infested 
birds. 

CECUM    WORMS 

These  tiny  parasites,  measuring  from  V2  to  %  of  an  inch  in  length, 
are  found  in  the  ceca  or  "blind  guts"  of  the  intestine.  On  account 
of  their  small  size  they  are  often  overlooked  by  the  poultryman  or 
taken  for  the  young  of  intestinal  round  worms  and  their  harmful 
effects  are  minimized  or  ignored.  Their  presence  on  the  walls  of  these 
organs  interrupts  their  normal  functioning  and  in  the  case  of  baby 
chicks,  may  result  in  death  as  early  as  the  tenth  day.  On  account 
of  their  sheltered  position,  they  are  very  hard  to  remove.  Large  doses 
of  tobacco  dust  have  been  known  to  cause  their  removal  but  no  definite 
data  on  this  point  are  available  at  the  present  time.  Infection  occurs 
in  the  same  manner  as  outlined  for  the  round  worms  and  preventive 
measures  should  be  taken  with  chicks  and  pullets  along  the  same  lines. 

GIZZARD  WORMS 

Gizzard  worms  (Cheilospirura  lamulosa)  are  small  worms  fre- 
quently found  coiled  under  the  outer  covering  of  the  gizzard.  We  have 
never  seen  any  birds  seriously  affected  by  their  presence  but  these 
instances  have  been  reported.  Although  it  is  claimed  that  turpentine 
is  beneficial,  a  single  trial  in  one  laboratory  failed  to  show  any  results. 
It  is  suspected  that  the  common  gray  sow  bug  so  numerous  in  moist, 
dark  places  is  a  carrier  of  this  parasite. 


30ra-3,'27 


PUBLICATIONS  AVAILABLE    FOE    FEEE    DISTRIBUTION 


BULLETINS 


No. 

253.   Irrigation   and   Soil   Conditions   in  the 
Sierra   Nevada   Foothills,    California. 

261.  Melaxuma    of    the    Walnut,     "Juglans 

regia." 

262.  Citrus  Diseases  of   Florida   and   Cuba 

Compared  with  Those  of  California. 

263.  Size  Grades  for  Ripe  Olives. 

268.   Growing  and  Grafting  Olive  Seedlings. 
273.   Preliminary  Report  on  Kearney  Vine- 
yard  Experimental   Drain. 

275.  The     Cultivation     of     Belladonna     in 

California. 

276.  The  Pomegranate. 

277.  Sudan   Grass. 

278.  Grain    Sorghums. 

279.  Irrigation   of  Rice  in   California. 
283.  The  Olive  Insects  of  California. 
294.  Bean   Culture  in   California. 

304.  A   Study  of  the  Effects  of  Freezes  on 

Citrus    in    California. 
310.  Plum    Pollination. 

312.  Mariout  Barley. 

313.  Pruning      Young      Deciduous      Fruit 

Trees. 
319.   Caprifigs    and    Caprification. 

324.  Storage  of  Perishable  Fruit   at  Freez- 

ing Temperatures. 

325.  Rice     Irrigation     Measurements     and 

Experiments    in    Sacramento   Valley, 

1914-1919. 
328.   Prune   Growing   in    California. 
331.   Phylloxera-Resistant    Stocks. 
335.   Cocoanut    Meal    as    a    Feed   for   Dairy 

Cows   and    Other   Livestock. 

339.  The    Relative    Cost    of    Making    Logs 

from   Small   and  Large  Timber. 

340.  Control     of     the     Pocket     Gopher     in 

California. 

343.  Cheese    Pests    and    Their    Control. 

344.  Cold    Storage   as   an   Aid  to   the   Mar- 

keting of  Plums. 

346.  Almond    Pollination. 

347.  The  Control  of  Red  Spiders  in  Decid- 

uous Orchards. 

348.  Pruning  Young  Olive  Trees. 

349.  A     Study    of    Sidedraft    and    Tractor 

Hitches. 

350.  Agriculture      in      Cut-over      Redwood 

Lands. 

352.  Further  Experiments  in  Plum  Pollina- 

tion. 

353.  Bovine   Infectious   Abortion. 

354.  Results  of  Rice  Experiments  in   1922. 

357.  A    Self-mixing    Dusting    Machine    for 

Applying      Dry      Insecticides       and 
Fungicides. 

358.  Black    Measles,     Water    Berries,     and 

Related  Vine  Troubles. 

361.  Preliminary   Yield   Tables   for    Second 

Growth   Redwood. 

362.  Dust   and  the  Tractor   Engine. 

363.  The  Pruning  of  Citrus  Trees  in  Cali- 

fornia. 

364.  Fungicidal    Dusts    for   the    Control    of 

Bunt. 

365.  Avocado  Culture  in  California. 

366.  Turkish  Tobacco  Culture,   Curing  and 

Marketing. 

367.  Methods  of  Harvesting  and  Irrigation 

in   Relation  of  Mouldy  Walnuts. 

368.  Bacterial  Decomposition  of  Olives  dur- 

ing  Pickling. 

369.  Comparison     of     Woods     for     Butter 

Boxes. 


No. 

370. 

371. 

372. 

373. 
374. 


375. 

376. 

377. 
379. 
380. 

381. 

382. 

383. 

385. 
386. 

387. 
388. 

389. 
390. 

391. 

392. 
393. 
394. 

395. 
396. 

397. 

398. 
399. 


400. 
401. 

402. 
403. 
404. 
405. 
406. 
407. 


408. 
409. 


410. 
411. 
412. 

413. 
414. 


Browning  of  Yellow  Newtown  Apples. 

The  Relative  Cost  of  Yarding  Small 
and   Large   Timber. 

The  Cost  of  Producing  Market  Milk  and 
Butterfat  on  246  California  Dairies. 

Pear   Pollination. 

A  Survey  of  Orchard  Practices  in  the 
Citrus  Industry  of  Southern  Cali- 
fornia. 

Results  of  Rice  Experiments  at  Cor- 
tena,    1923. 

Sun-Drying  and  Dehydration  of  Wal- 
nuts. 

The   Cold   Storage   of   Pears. 

Walnut   Culture   in   California. 

Growth  of  Eucalyptus  in  California 
Plantations. 

Growing  and  Handling  Asparagus 
Crowns. 

Pumping  for  Drainage  in  the  San 
Joaquin   Valley,    California. 

Monilia  Blossom  Blight  (Brown  Rot) 
of  Apricot. 

Pollination    of   the    Sweet    Cherry. 

Pruning  Bearing  Deciduous  Fruit 
Trees. 

Fig   Smut. 

The  Principles  and  Practice  of  Sun- 
drying  Fruit. 

Berseem  or   Egyptian   Clover. 

Harvesting  and  Packing  Grapes  in 
California. 

Machines  for  Coating  Seed  Wheat  with 
Copper    Carbonate    Dust. 

Fruit    Juice    Concentrates. 

Crop  Sequences  at  Davis. 

Cereal  Hay  Production  in  California. 
Feeding  Trials  with  Cereal  Hay. 

Bark   Diseases   of   Citrus   Trees. 

The  Mat  Bean  (Phaseolus  aconitifo- 
lius). 

Manufacture  of  Roquefort  Type  Cheese 
from   Goat's   Milk. 

Orchard  Heating  in  California. 

The  Blackberry  Mite,  the  Cause  of 
Redberry  Disease  of  the  Himalaya 
Blackberry,    and    its    Control. 

The  Utilization  of  Surplus  Plums. 

Cost  of  Work  Horses  on  California 
Farms. 

The  Codling  Moth  in  Walnuts. 

Farm-Accounting  Associations. 

The  Dehydration  of  Prunes. 

Citrus  Culture  in  Central  California. 

Stationary  Spray  Plants  in  California. 

Yield,  Stand  and  Volume  Tables  for 
White  Fir  in  the  California  Pine 
Region. 

Alternaria  Rot  of  Lemons. 

The  Digestibility  of  Certain  Fruit  By- 
products as  Determined  for  Rumi- 
nants. 

Factors  Affecting  the  Quality  of  Fresh 
Asparagus  after  it  is  Harvested. 

Paradichlorobenzene  as  a  Soil  Fumi- 
gant. 

A  Study  of  the  Relative  Values  of  Cer- 
tain Root  Crops  and  Salmon  Oil  as 
Sources  of  Vitamin  A  for  Poultry. 

The  California  Poultry  Industry;  a 
Statistical   Study. 

Planting  and  Thinning  Distances  for 
Deciduous  Fruit  Trees. 


No. 
87. 
117. 

127. 
129. 
136. 

144. 

157. 
160. 
164. 
166. 
170. 

173. 

178. 
179. 

190. 
199. 
202. 

203. 
209. 
210. 
212. 
215. 
217. 

220. 
228. 
230. 

231. 
232. 

234. 

235. 

236. 


237. 

238. 
239. 

240. 

241. 

243. 

244. 
245. 
247. 
248. 

249. 
250. 

252. 
253. 
254. 


Alfalfa. 

The    Selection    and    Cost    of    a    Small 

Pumping  Plant. 
House    Fumigation. 
The   Control  of  Citrus   Insects. 
Melilotus    indlca    as    a    Green-Manure 

Crop  for  California. 
Oidium    or    Powdery    Mildew    of    the 

Vine. 
Control  of  the  Pear  Scab. 
Lettuce  Growing  in  California. 
Small  Fruit  Culture  in   California. 
The   County  Farm  Bureau. 
Fertilizing     California     Soils     for    the 

1918   Crop. 
The    Construction    of    the    "Wood-Hoop 

Silo. 
The   Packing  of  Apples   in   California. 
Factors    of    Importance    in    Producing 

Milk  of  Low  Bacterial   Count. 
Agriculture  Clubs  in   California. 
Onion    Growing  in    California. 
County   Organizations   for   Rural   Fire 

Control. 
Peat   as   a   Manure   Substitute. 
The  Function  of  the  Farm  Bureau. 
Suggestions  to  the  Settler  in  California. 
Salvaging    Rain-Damaged    Prunes. 
Feeding  Dairy  Cows  in  California. 
Methods   for   Marketing  Vegetables   in 

California. 
Unfermented   Fruit   Juices. 
Vineyard  Irrigation  in  Arid  Climates. 
Testing  Milk,    Cream,    and   Skim   Milk 

for  Butterfat. 
The    Home    Vineyard. 
Harvesting    and    Handling    California 

Cherries    for    Eastern    Shipment. 
Winter  Injury  to  Young  Walnut  Trees 

during  1921-22. 
Soil     Analysis     and     Soil     and     Plant 

Inter-relations. 
The    Common     Hawks     and    Owls    of 

California    from    the    Standpoint    of 

the  Rancher. 
Directions  for  the  Tanning  and  Dress- 
ing of  Furs. 
The  Apricot  in  California. 
Harvesting     and     Handling     Apricots 

and  Plums  for  Eastern  Shipment. 
Harvesting    and    Handling    Pears    for 

Eastern   Shipment. 
Harvesting  and  Handling  Peaches  for 

Eastern   Shipment. 
Marmalade  Juice  and  Jelly  Juice  from 

Citrus  Fruits. 
Central  Wire  Bracing  for  Fruit  Trees. 
Vine   Pruning   Systems. 
Colonization    and    Rural   Development. 
Some    Common    Errors    in    Vine  Prun- 
ing and  Their  Remedies. 
Replacing    Missing    Vines. 
Measurement   of   Irrigation   Water   on 

the  Farm. 
Supports  for  Vines. 
Vineyard  Plans. 
The  Use  of  Artificial  Light  to  Increase 

Winter   Egg   Production. 


CIRCULARS 
No. 
255. 


256. 
257. 
258. 
259. 
261. 
262. 
263. 
264. 

265. 
266. 

267. 

269. 
270. 
272. 

273. 
274. 

276. 

277. 

278. 
279. 
281. 

282. 

283. 
284. 
285. 
286. 
287. 
288. 
289. 
290. 
291. 

292. 
293. 
294. 
295. 

296. 

298. 

299. 
300. 
301. 
302. 
303. 

304. 
305. 
306. 

307. 
308. 


Leguminous  Plants  as  Organic  Fertil- 
izer   in    California    Agriculture. 

The   Control   of   Wild   Morning   Glory. 

The  Small-Seeded  Horse  Bean. 

Thinning   Deciduous   Fruits.  ' 

Pear  By-products. 

Sewing  Grain  Sacks. 

Cabbage  Growing  in   California. 

Tomato  Production  in  California. 

Preliminary  Essentials  to  Bovine 
Tuberculosis  Control. 

Plant   Disease   and   Pest   Control. 

Analyzing  the  Citrus  Orchard  by 
Means   of    Simple   Tree   Records. 

The  Tendency  of  Tractors  to  Rise  in 
Front;    Causes   and   Remedies. 

An  Orchard  Brush  Burner. 

A  Farm  Septic  Tank. 

California  Farm  Tenancy  and  Methods 
of  Leasing. 

Saving  the   Gophered   Citrus  Tree. 

Fusarium  Wilt  of  Tomato  and  its  Con- 
trol by  Means  of  Resistant  Varieties. 

Home  Canning. 

Head,  Cane,  and  Cordon  Pruning  of 
Vines. 

Olive  Pickling  in  Mediterranean  Coun- 
tries. 

The  Preparation  and  Refining  of  Olive 
Oil   in    Southern   Europe. 

The  Results  of  a  Survey  to  Determine 
the  Cost  of  Producing  Beef  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

Prevention  of  Insect  Attack  on  Stored 
Grain. 

Fertilizing  Citrus  Trees  in   California. 

The   Almond   in   California. 

Sweet  Potato  Production  in  California. 

Milk  Houses  for  California  Dairies. 

Potato   Production   in    California. 

Phylloxera   Resistant  Vineyards. 

Oak  Fungus  in  Orchard  Trees. 

The  Tangier  Pea. 

Blackhead  and  Other  Causes  of  Loss 
of  Turkeys  in   California. 

Alkali   Soils. 

The    Basis   of   Grape    Standardization. 

Propagation   of   Deciduous   Fruits. 

The  Growing  and  Handling  of  Head 
Lettuce  in   California. 

Control  of  the  California  Ground 
Squirrel. 

The  Possibilities  and  Limitations  of 
Cooperative  Marketing. 

Poultry   Breeding   Records. 

Coccidiosis  of  Chickens. 

Buckeye  Poisoning  of  the  Honey  Bee. 

The   Sugar  Beet   in   California. 

A  Promising  Remedy  for  Black  Measles 
of  the  Vine. 

Drainage  on   the  Farm. 

Liming  the  Soil. 

A  General  Purpose  Soil  Auger  and  its 
Use  on  the  Farm. 

American   Foulbrood   and  its   Control. 

Cantaloupe  Production  in  California. 


The  publications  listed  above  may  be  had  by  addressing 

College  of  Agriculture, 

University  of  California, 

Berkeley,  California. 


